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BR  165  .S44  1906 
Sell,  Henry  T.  1854-1928 
Studies  in  early  church 
history 


STUDIES  IN  EARLY 
CHURCH   HISTORY 


A  New  Method  for  Adult  Bible 
and  Teacher  Traini7ig   Classes 

By  HENRY  T.  SELL,  D.D. 

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STUDIES  IN  EARLY 
CHURCH  HISTORY 


BY 

HENRY  T.  SELL,  D.  D. 

Author  of  "  Supplemental  Bible  Studies,''  "  Bible 
Study  by  Books,''  « Bible  Study  by  Periods," 
"  Bible  Study  by  Doctrines''  "  Bible  Studies  in 
the  Life  of  Christ,"  ''Bible  Studies  in  the  Life  of 
Paul"   «•  Studies  in  the  Life  of  the  Christian " 


New  York         Chicago         Toronto 

Fleming  H.  Revell  Company 

London    and    Edinburgh 


Copyright,  1906,  by 
FLEMING  H.  REVELL  COMPANY 


New  York:  158  Fifth  Avenue 
Chicago:  17  North  Wabash  Ave. 
London:  21  Paternoster  Square 
Edinburgh:      75     Princes    Street 


PREFACE 

The  period  of  which  these  studies  treat  extends  from  the 
time  of  Christ  to  the  reign  of  Constantine,  the  first  Christian 
Roman  Emperor.  This  era  has  been  called,  "  The  Heroic 
Age  of  the  Church."  It  was  during  these  three  hundred 
years  that  Christianity  encountered  the  bitter  hostihty  of  the 
Roman  and  Greek  religions  and  systems  of  philosophy  and 
was  under  the  ban  of  the  civil  power.  It  was  then  that  it 
formulated  its  doctrines,  set  forth  its  principles,  wrote  its 
New  Testament  books  and  endured  its  fiery  persecutions. 
In  the  enthusiasm  and  freshness  of  their  faith,  its  converts 
dared  all  things ;  no  tasks  were  too  hard,  no  hardships  too 
great  and  no  tortures  too  painful,  when  called  for  in  the 
name  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Lord  and  Saviour. 

We  are  in  the  immediate  presence  of  the  builders  of  the 
Church ;  we  see  their  plans ;  we  look  upon  the  laying  of 
the  great  broad  foundations.  We  behold  the  struggle  with 
refractory  materials  and  we  are  impressed  with  the  undaunted 
spirit  and  courageous  dealing  with  diflSculties,  as  this  mag- 
nificent spiritual  structure — grandly  simple  in  its  organiza- 
tion and  forms  of  worship — is  erected. 

In  these  studies  the  aim  is  to  set  forth  the  great  leading 
facts  in  regard  to  the  belief  and  life  of  the  early  Church ; 
hence  the  ten  divisions  or  studies:  i.  The  Church  in  Je- 
rusalem. 2.  The  Church  in  Antioch.  3.  The  Church  in 
the  Provinces.  4.  The  Church  in  Rome.  5.  The  Church 
in  the  Catacombs.  6.  The  Church  in  Worship.  7.  The 
Church  in  the  Books.  8.  The  Church  in  Controversy. 
9.  The  Church  in  Persecution.     10.  The  Church  in  Victory. 

This  book  is  for  the  use  of  adult  Bible  and  teacher  train- 
ing classes,  Bible  study  circles,  educational  institutions  and 
private  study.  It  is  uniform  with  the  author's  other  "  Seven 
Books  of  Bible  Studies." 

Henry  T.  Sell. 


CONTENTS 

STUDY  I 
The  Church  in  Jerusalem 

THE  BEGINNING— The  Christian  Church.  The  First 
Candidates  for  Membership.  The  First  Sermon. 
The  First  Form  of  Prayer.  The  First  Missionaries. 
Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.     The  Policy  .         1 5 

THE  BAPTISM  OF  THE  HOLY  SPIRIT.— The  General 
Preparation.  The  Immediate  Preparation.  The 
Fulfillment  of  the  Promise.  The  Descent  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  Some  Effects  of  the  Presence  of  this 
Power 18 

THE  TEACHING.— The  Substance.     The  Manner 

THE  ORGANIZATION.— The  Head  of  the  Church.  The 
Voluntary  Character o  The  Ordinances.  The  Doc- 
trine and  Prayers.  The  Social  Aspect,  The  First 
case  of  Discipline.  The  Election  of  the  First  Dea- 
cons. Bishops,  Elders  and  other  Officers.  The 
Growth  ........         23 

ACTIVITIES.— The  Field.     The  Equipment.     The  Help 

of  the  Holy  Spirit.     The  Joy  ....         28 

STUDY  II 
The  Church  in  Antioch 

JERUSALEM  TO  ANTIOCH.— The  Scattering  Abroad 
of  the  Members  of  the  Jerusalem  Church.  The  Or- 
ganization of  the  Church  in  Samaria.  The  Mission 
to  Ethiopia.  The  Conversion  of  Saul.  Peaceful 
Times.     The  Vision  of  Peter  .         .         •         .         |P 

9 


lO  Contents 


THE  CITY  AND  THE  WORK.— The  Importance  of  the 
City.  The  Founding  of  the  First  Gentile  Church, 
The  Visit  of  Barnabas,  The  Bringing  in  of  PauL 
The  New  Name.     The  Number  of  Christians  o         36 

RENEWED  PERSECUTION.  —  The  Martyrdom  of 
James.  The  Imprisonment  of  Peter.  The  Death 
of  the  Persecutor,  Herod  Agrippa  I.  The  Result  of 
the  Persecution       c         ,         .         „         .         ,         ,         40 

STUDY  III 
The  Church  in  the  Provinces 

CONDITIONS  AND  PROBLEMS.— Territorial  Expan- 
sion. Political  and  Religious  State  of  Asia  Minor, 
Macedonia  and  Greece.  New  Questions  and  Ad- 
justments       ...         o         ....         43 

THE  LEADERSHIP  OF  THE   HOLY  SPIRIT.— The 

Significance.     The  Men  and  the  Work   ...         46 

CHURCHES  FOUNDED  BY  PAUL.— The  General  Plan 
of  Work.  The  Message.  The  First  Missionary 
Journey,  The  Second  Missionary  Journey.  The 
Third  Missionary  Journey 47 

THE    APOSTOLIC    COUNCIL.— The    Account.      The 

Cause.     The  Decision     ......  5® 

THE  WIDENING  CIRCLE  OF  CHURCHES.—The 
Diffusion  of  the  Gospel :  in  Asia,  in  Europe,  in  Africa. 
The  History  .......         5I 

NUMBER  OF  CONVERTSo— The  Evidence  .         ,         53 

STUDY  IV 

The  Church  in  Rome 

THE  CHURCH.— When  Organized.  Composition  and 
Meeting  Places.  Paul's  Letter  to  the  Roman  Chris- 
tians.    Position  and  Influence  ....         56 


Contents  1 1 

THE  CITY  AND  THE  EMPIRE.— The  City  of  Rome. 
The  Empire.  Helps  in  the  Progress  of  the  Church. 
Obstacles  in  the  Way  of  the  Progress  of  the  Church  59 

THE  FIRST  GREAT  ROMAN  PERSECUTION.— The 
Immediate  Cause.  The  Reason  Given.  The  Suf- 
ferings of  the  Christians.  The  Martyrdom  of  Paul. 
Some  Results  .         o         .         .         ,         »         =,         63 

STUDY  V 
The  Church  in  the  Catacombs 

THE  CATACOMBS  OF  ROME.— The  Records       . 
LOCATION  AND  MOTIVE.— Location.     Motive 


68 

68 

69 

71 

73 

74 
7^ 


CONSTRUCTION.— The  Mode.  Sanctioned  by  Law, 
Extent.     Time        .         .         .         o         .         . 

GROUPS. — Over  Forty-two  Groups  of  Catacombs.     St 
Calixtus.     Flavia   Domatilla.     Lucina  or  Commo- 
della.     Priscilla.     Pretextatus 

PAINTINGS, — Ornamental.  Symbolicalo  Sacramental 
The  Biblical  Cycle.     Character 

INSCRIPTIONS.— Pagan.     Christian      . 
SPECIAL  OBJECTS  AND  TEACHING 

STUDY  VI 
The  Church  in  Worship 

THE  SERVICE  OF  WORSHIP.— Definition,  Partici- 
pation.    Privileges.     Function        .         .         ,         .         78 

UNIVERSALITY,     PLACES,    TIMES,  —  Universality. 

Places.     Times      ....,,.         79 

FORMS,  GIFTS,  ORDINANCES.— Form  of  Public  Wor- 
ship. Form  of  Private  Worship,  Gifts.  Ordi- 
nances .,         o         .....         83 


12  Contents 


OBJECTS,  RESULTS. —  Objects:  God,  the  Father* 
Christ,  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit.  Preexistence 
of  Christ.  Divine  Titles  Given  to  Christ.  Divine 
Attributes  Ascribed  to  Christ.  Divine  Works 
Wrought  by  Christ.  Supreme  Worship  to  be  Paid 
to  Christ.     Results         ......        89 

STUDY  VII 

The  Church  in  the  Books 

THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  BOOKS.— The  First  Written 
Documents.  An  Appeal  for  the  Truth  to  the  Old 
Testament      ....<>  o         ..         92 

THE    TRANSITION    PERIOD.— The    Eye- Witnesses. 

The  Ear- Witnesses  .         o         .         o         .         .         93 

THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  BOOKS.— The  Book  Wit-= 
nesses.  The  Contents  of  the  New  Testament. 
Time  of  Writing.  Order  of  the  Books.  The  Five 
Historical  Books.  The  Twenty-one  Epistles.  The 
Apocalypse     .......         c  94 

THE  USE  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  BOOKS.— In 
the  Churches.  By  Early  Christian  Writers.  The 
Canon  99 

STUDY  VIII 
The  Church  in  Controversy 

CAUSES. — The  Twofold  Conflict.  The  Fundamental 
Question.,  Holiness  and  Exclusiveness.  Unworld- 
liness  and  Aggressiveness         .  ,  .  .          .        109 

THE  ANTAGONISM  OF  JUDAISM.— Principles  In- 
volved. Early  Manifestations.  Later  Manifesta- 
tions.    The  Christian  Apologists.      The  Result        .        Ill 

THE  ANTAGONISM  OF  HEATHENISM.— The  Polit- 
ical Conflict.  The  Caste  Conflict.  The  Religious 
Conflict.  The  Blood  Revenge  Conflict.  The  Un- 
ending Conflict.     The  Battle  of  the  Ideals         .  .       US 


Contents 


13 


DOCTRINAL  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  CONTROVER- 
SIES.— Doctrinal :  Ebionism,  Gnosticism.  Man- 
ichseism.  Philosophical :  The  Skeptics'  Controversy 
with  and  Attack  upon  Christianity.  The  Neo-Pla- 
tonists'  Attack  upon  Christianity      »  c  .  <■        II8 

CHRISTIAN  LITERATURE.— New  Testament  Writers, 
The  Apostolic  Fathers.  The  Apologists.  The 
Polemics.  The  Alexandrian  School.  The  North 
African  Fathers       .  .  ,         .         .         .  ,124 

STUDY  IX 
The  Church  in  Persecution 

THE  OCCASION.— The  Causes.  The  Clash.  The 
Heroic  Elements  of  Christianity.  The  Creed  as  an 
Issue      .         .         .  , 128 

THE  JEWISH  PERSECUTIONS.— The  Origin.    Extent 

and  Time.     The  Conduct  of  the  Persecuted    .         ,        1 30 

THE  ROMAN  PERSECUTIONS— The  Policy  of  the 
Empire.  The  Attitude  of  Christianity.  The  Join- 
ing of  the  Issue.  The  Penalties.  Extent  and  Time. 
The  Ten  Persecutions:  By  Nero.  By  Domitian. 
By  Trajan.  By  Marcus  Aurelius.  By  Septimius 
Severus.  By  MaximinuSo  By  DeciuSc  By  Va- 
lerian.    By  Aurelian.     By  Diocletian      ,         .         .        1 31 

THE  EDICT  OF  MILAN — This  Edict   the   Charter   of 

Christian  Liberty    ....,.,       148 

STUDY  X 
The  Church  in  Victory 

THE  RAPID  GROWTH.— The  Situation..  The  Testi- 
mony ot  Christian  and  Heathen  Writers.  Some 
Effects  .  .  ,          ;,  .  o  o        X50 

SOURCES  OF  POWER.— Gibbon's  Five  Causes.  The 
Supernatural  Guidance  of  the  Church.  The  Human 
Instrumentality       ,         ,         ,         ,  ,         •        ^5S 


14  Contents 


THE  CLASSES  REACHED. — The  Common  People. 
The  Cultured,  the  Wealthy,  the  Aristocratic,  the 
Official  and  the  Court  Classes  .         <,  .  1 58 

THE    WORLD    CHURCH.  —  Conditions.        Principles. 

Perfection  of  All  Religions 160 


Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


Study  I 
THE  CHURCH  IN  JERUSALEM 

THE  BEGINNING 

The  Christian  Church  was  prepared  for  by  the  Jewish 
church,  but  it  had  its  beginning  in  Jesus  Christ.  He 
is  its  Founder  (Matthew  i6  ;  15-20 ;  John  14  :  6 ;  Matthew 
26  :  28 ;  John  1 1  :  25,  26 ;  12:32;  Matthew  28  ;  19,  20 ; 
Acts  I  :  8)  and  Foundation  (i  Corinthians  2:2;  3:11; 
Philippians  2  :  9-1 1). 

"Very  early  in  the  ministry  of  Jesus  Christ  we  observe 
indications  that  He  intended  to  found  a  society,  based  upon 
the  principles  of  The  Kingdom  of  God,  In  which  the  mem- 
bers should  be  held  together  by  outward  and  visible  ties  of 
fellowship  in  addition  to  a  common  belief  and  the  observ- 
ance of  certain  sacraments."  This  society  is  the  church  or 
assembly. 

The  word  church  in  the  New  Testament  is  used  in  three 
senses  to  denote  the  difference  in  the  form. 

1.  The  local  congregation  worshipping  in  a  house  (Phil- 
emon 2  ;  Colossians  4:  15)  or  a  certain  place  as  **The 
church  of  God  which  is  at  Corinth  "  (i  Corinthians  i  :  2) 
and  "The  church  of  the  Thessalonians  "  (i  Thessalonians 
I  :  i).     This  is  much  the  most  frequent  use  of  the  word. 

2.  The  entire  community  of  Christians  throughout  the 
world  or  some  portions  of  it  (i  Corinthians  15  :  9;  Gala- 
tians  I  :  13;  Matthew  16  :  18). 

»5 


l6         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


3.  The  total  company  of  the  redeemed,  the  bride  of 
Christ  (Ephesians  5  :  23,  25,  27,  30;   Hebrews  12  :  23). 

Those  who  joined  the  early  Christian  church  did  so  be- 
cause of  their  belief  in  Christ  as  the  Messiah  (John  i  ;  41) 
and  their  acceptance  of  Him  as  their  Saviour  (Acts  2  :  36-41). 

The  First  Candidates  for  Membership  in  the  church 
were  attracted  to  Jesus,  followed  Him  and  sought  to  have 
their  relatives  and  friends  follow  Him,  because  of  the  testi- 
mony of  John  the  Baptist  that  *'  This  is  the  Son  of  God  " 
(John  I  :34-5i)- 

The  First  Sermon  was  preached  by  Christ  upon  a 
mountain  in  Galilee  (Matthew  5  :  1-7  :  29).  Here  he  laid 
down  the  principles  which  were  to  guide  the  conduct  and 
lives  of  His  followers.  He  taught  the  blessedness  of  those 
who  accepted  these  principles  (Matthew  5  :  1-16),  their  re- 
lations to  the  world,  to  their  fellow  men  and  to  God.  The 
appeal  was  to  the  inner  life  (Matthew  6  :  1-6 ;  7  :  1-5),  to 
conform  it  to  the  law  of  God  and  to  seek  to  please  Him  first 
in  all  things  (Matthew  6  :  20-24,  33'}  5  •  4^)- 

Jesus  taught  many  things,  not  set  forth  in  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  in  regard  to  Himself,  but  the  <<root  principle  of 
the  Kingdom  proclaimed  by  Him  was  the  allegiance  of  the 
soul  to  Himself  as  its  supreme  Lord."  He  said,  '*  I  am 
the  way,  the  truth  and  the  Hfe  "  (John  14:6);  ''  I  am  the 
vine,  ye  are  the  branches"  (John  15:  5),  and  ^'He  that 
believeth  on  Me  hath  everlasting  life  "  (John  6  :  47  ;  3  :  17  ; 
20:  30,  31). 

Necessarily  His  disciples  did  not  fully  understand  much 
of  what  Jesus  taught  about  "  the  nature  of  salvation  through 
Himself,  for  it  had  not  yet  been  revealed  by  His  sufferings, 
death  and  resurrection." 

The  First  Form  of  Prayer  is  given  in  connection  with 
the  ''Sermon  on  the  Mount,"  and  is  known  as  the  Lord's 
Prayer  (Matthew  6:  9-13).  Christ  here  teaches  that  God 
loves  man  and  stands  in  the  relation  of  a  Father  to  him. 
Man  is  also  taught  the  proper  approach  to  God  and  the 
right  objects  of  prayer.     It  is  the  perfect  pattern  for  all 


The  Church  in  Jerusalem  17 

prayer.  It  has  expressed  in  it,  "  petition,  intercession  and 
thanksgiving ;  all  essential  objects  of  prayer — spiritual  and 
temporal,  divine  and  human — in  the  most  suitable  and  beau- 
tiful order." 

The  First  Missionaries. — Jesus  was  not  only  incessant 
in  His  own  efforts  to  bring  men  to  a  knowledge  of  the  truth, 
but  He  sent  forth  ''The  Twelve"  (Luke  9  :  1-6),  who 
were  in  immediate  attendance  upon  Him,  and  "appointed 
other  seventy  also,  and  sent  them  two  and  two  before  His 
face  into  every  city  and  place,  whither  He  Himself  would 
come"  (Luke  10:  1-17).  Careful  instructions  were  given 
these  first  missionaries  in  regard  to  the  proper  way  of  ap- 
proaching people,  what  and  how  they  were  to  preach  and 
how  they  were  to  act  in  case  of  their  rejection.  The  needs 
and  the  dangers  of  the  work  were  impressed  upon  their 
minds. 

Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper. — Baptism,  the  out- 
ward sign  of  an  inward  cleansing,  was  a  badge  of  disciple- 
ship  and  commanded  by  Jesus  in  His  last  instructions  to 
His  disciples  (Matthew  28  :  19). 

The  Lord's  Supper  was  instituted  by  Christ  to  commem- 
orate His  work  and  His  atoning  death  (Matthew  26  :  26-29; 
Mark  14:22-24;  Luke  22:19,  20;  i  Corinthians 
II  :  23-26).  In  giving  His  disciples  the  bread  Jesus  said, 
"  This  is  My  body  which  is  given  for  you ;  this  do  in  re- 
membrance of  Me  "  (Luke  22:19).  ^^  passing  the  cup  He 
said,  *'  This  is  My  blood  of  the  New  Testament,  which  is  shed 
for  many  for  the  remission  of  sins  "  (Matthew  26  :  28). 

The  Policy  was  that  of  an  aggressive  extension  of  the 
work.  Jesus  knew  that  He  was  to  depart  in  bodily  presence 
from  the  earth.  He  predicted  His  death  and  in  so  doing 
He  also  prepared  His  followers  for  the  great  task  before  them 
in  extending  the  mission  of  the  church  "in  Jerusalem  and 
in  all  Judea  and  in  Samaria  and  unto  the  uttermost  part  of 
the  earth  "  (Acts  1:8).  His  church  was  not  to  be  for  one 
age  or  one  people,  but  for  all  ages  and  all  peoples  and  in  His 
spiritual  presence  He  was  to  be  in  all  its  work  (Matthew 


l8         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


28  :  18-20).  Here  was  a  decidedly  new  and  startling  idea 
in  the  world  of  religion.  Hitherto  religions  had  been  narrow 
and  circumscribed ;  each  nation  or  people  had  its  own  ex- 
clusive gods  which  were  supposed  to  protect  it  and  to  which 
it  looked  for  all  benefits  beyond  its  power.  But  this  new 
religion,  Christianity,  declared  boldly  and  openly  that  these 
national  gods  were  naught  and  called  upon  all  men  every- 
where to  repent  and  believe  in  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  the  first  Christian  teachers  and  preachers 
met  with  such  strong  opposition  and  persecution  in  carrying 
out  the  command  of  their  Lord  to  proselyte  all  nations. 

THE  BAPTISM  BY  THE  HOLY  SPIRIT 

Time.  From  the  Ascension  of  Christ  to  the  martyrdoro 
of  Stephen,  30-35  a.  d. 

This  baptism  marks  not  only  a  great  epoch  in  the  history 
of  the  church,  but  of  the  world.  Many  writers  date  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Christian  church  from  this  baptism.  The 
agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  very  marked  in  the  record  of 
the  Acts.     He  is  mentioned  about  seventy  times. 

The  particular  period  in  the  ministry  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
the  church — treated  in  this  study,  from  this  point  to  the 
close — is  from  the  day  of  Pentecost  to  the  martyrdom  of 
Stephen,  the  first  deacon  (Acts  2  :  1-7  :  60).  The  action  is 
all  in  the  city  of  Jerusalem  and  is  marked  by  the  display  of 
marvellous  divine  power.  This  is  a  natural  division  occu- 
pying in  time  about  five  years,  30-35  a.  d.  The  command 
of  Christ  was  here  fulfilled  that  His  disciples  should  first 
witness  for  Him  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  i  :  8)  the  place  of  His 
death  and  resurrection. 

The  General  Preparation  for  this  baptism  (Acts  2:1-12) 
was  long  and  arduous.  It  is  true  that  when  it  came  to  pass, 
it  came  suddenly,  but  the  way  and  the  men  had  been  made 
ready.  The  Old  Testament  prophets  had  foretold  it  and 
sought  to  qualify  the  people  to  receive  it.  Jesus  had  not 
only  had  His  disciples  under  careful  training,  but  He  had 
gone  up  and  down  and  roundabout  through  Palestine  preach- 


The  Church  in  Jerusalem  19 

ing  and  teaching  things  pertaining  to  the  Kingdom  to  all 
who  would  listen.  Then  His  trial,  death  and  resurrection 
had  been  so  accomplished,  in  the  sight  of  a  multitude  of 
people,  when  Jerusalem  was  crowded  with  Jews  attending 
the  Passover,  that  these  great  events  were  upon  every  tongue. 

But  now  when  Jesus  has  accomplished  His  mission  on 
earth,  in  bodily  form.  He  bids  His  disciples  wait  until  they 
shall  be  baptized  with  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts  1:5). 

It  was  not  sufficient  that  the  multitude  without  and  the 
disciples  themselves,  much  more  intimately,  should  have  a 
knowledge  of  the  facts  about  Christ,  but  there  must  be  an 
added  divine  power  through  the  Holy  Spirit  to  make  these 
facts  glow  with  life  and  a  light  which  should  change 
men's  hearts  and  cause  them  to  turn  to  their  Saviour.  The 
witnesses  to  the  facts  were  to  testify  for  Christ  after  the 
descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  not  before.  The  Christian 
church  was  planned  not  as  a  human,  but  a  divine  creation ; 
without  the  Spirit  it  has  no  power ;  with  the  Spirit  it  is  the 
mightiest  institution  on  earth. 

The  Immediate  Preparation. — After  the  ascension  of 
Jesus,  the  disciples  returned  to  Jerusalem,  repaired  to  the 
upper  room  of  a  certain  house  and  held  a  ten  days'  prayer- 
meeting.  There  they  <*  all  continued  with  one  accord  in 
prayer  and  supplication  "(Acts  i :  12-14). 

It  is  significant  that  this  goodly  number  of  disciples, 
"about  an  hundred  and  twenty,"  spent  their  waiting  time 
not  in  discussion  or  speculation  over  the  wonderful  events 
which  they  had  recently  witnessed  and  what  would  come  to 
pass  in  the  immediate  future,  but  they  placed  themselves  in 
an  attitude  of  earnest  and  prayerful  expectancy.  Their 
supreme  desire  was  to  be  used  in  the  most  effective  way  to 
promote  the  salvation  of  men.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  any  church — if  all  the  members  would  come  together, 
or  any  considerable  number  of  them,  in  a  like  spirit  for  a 
ten  days'  prayer-meeting — might  likewise  have  a  wonderful 
outpouring  of  the  spirit.  The  way  to  divine  blessing  is  still 
through  prayer. 


20         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


The  Fulfillment  of  the  Promise  made  by  Christ,  be- 
fore His  death  (John  14:  16,  17  ;  16  :  7-15)  and  after  His 
resurrection  (Acts  i :  5,  8)  came  to  pass  on  the  day  of  Pen- 
tecost on  the  morning  of  Saturday  or  Sunday  May  27  or  28, 
30  A.  D. 

It  was  a  fitting  time  for  the  display  of  divine  power. 
This  feast  of  Pentecost  was  the  second  of  the  great  feasts  of 
the  Jews.  It  was  so  named  because  it  was  kept  on  the 
fiftieth  day  after  the  Passover.  It  was  the  feast  of  harvest 
and  of  first  fruits.  Because  of  its  being  in  the  summer 
greater  numbers  were  present  in  Jerusalemx  than  at  any  other 
season  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  *'  From  a  census  taken 
in  the  time  of  Nero  more  than  2,700,000  people  were 
gathered  at  the  Passover  and  still  greater  numbers  came  to 
Pentecost."  It  was  on  this  day  that  the  Jew  was  to  remem- 
ber that  he  had  been  a  bondman  in  the  land  of  Egypt  and 
had  been  led  forth  to  freedom.  It  was  also  the  traditional 
memorial  day  of  the  giving  of  the  law  on  Sinai.  It  was 
therefore  specially  suitable  for  a  new  manifestation  of  the 
spirit  and  the  giving  of  a  new  spiritual  law  in  Christ  and  the 
leading  of  the  people  out  into  a  new  religious  freedom.  It 
was  a  great  feast  of  the  gathering  of  the  first  fruits  of  Christ 
on  earth. 

The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  the  record  of  a 
historical  fact  and  the  most  simple  fact  is  sometimes  not 
easy  of  explanation.  The  narrative,  however,  is  a  plain  one 
and  is  told  in  a  comparatively  few  sentences.  The  disciples 
are  with  one  accord  in  one  place.  Suddenly  there  is  the 
sound  as  of  a  rushing  mighty  wind.  Cloven  tongues  like  as 
of  fire  sit  upon  the  disciples'  heads.  It  is  not  said  that  it  is 
a  rushing  mighty  wind,  but  like  the  sound  of  it.  It  is  not 
said  that  the  tongues  are  of  fire  but  like  it  (Acts  2 :  2,  3). 
The  writer  is  attempting  to  describe  a  supernatural  event  in 
comparative  terms.  The  disciples  are,  however,  filled  with 
a  power  beyond  their  comprehension.  They  are  enthused 
with  the  Holy  Spirit.  They  become  new  men  speaking  with 
extraordinary  facility  and  ease.     All  their  timidity  and  hesi- 


The  Church  in  Jerusalem  21 


tation  have  departed.  They  speak  with  other  tongues 
(Acts  2  :  4)  as  the  spirit  gives  them  utterance. 

The  symbol  of  the  flaming  tongues  has  large  meaning  in 
it.  Fire  is  a  representative  characteristic  of  the  Holy 
Spirit ;  it  is  bright  and  glorious  and  not  only  represents  His 
revealing  power,  but  also  His  purifying  and  cleansing 
power.  ''The  human  tongue,  illuminated  and  sanctified  by 
fire  from  the  inner  sanctuary,  was  about  to  be  the  instru- 
ment of  the  gospel's  advancement."  The  best  preaching 
has  been  called,  ''  logic  set  on  fire."  **  A  new  spirit  always 
means  a  new  tongue." 

The  speaking  with  ''other  tongues  "  has  been  described 
as  "  a  sudden  and  powerful  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
by  which  the  disciples  uttered  not  of  their  minds,  but 
as  mouthpieces  of  the  Spirit,  the  praises  of  God  in  various 
languages,  hitherto,  and  possibly  at  the  time  unknown  to 
them.  This  miracle  was  meant  to  foreshadow  the  universal 
•;^rogress  of  the  new  faith  and  its  message  for  all  mankind, 
without  distinction  of  nation,  position  or  age.  Pentecost  is 
the  reversal  of  Babel." 

Some  Effects  of  the  Presence  of  this  Power. — The 
first  effect  was  upon  the  disciples  themselves.  From  timid 
men  they  became  exceedingly  bold  in  the  presentation  of 
their  cause.  They  had  to  speak  to  a  multitude  of  people 
who  had  a  short  time  before  cried  out  for  the  death  of  their 
Master  and  Lord. 

The  second  effect  was  upon  the  multitude.  They  were 
"confounded"  and  "amazed,"  they  "  marvelled "  (Acts 
2  :  6,  7).  Their  interest  was  aroused  to  the  highest  point 
when  every  man  heard  the  disciples  speaking  "in  his  own 
language."  There  is  no  better  time  to  present  the  truth  to 
men  than  when  they  themselves  are  roused  to  the  highest 
point  of  interest  in  regard  to  it.  Peter  spoke  to  a  highly  m- 
terested  audience. 

The  third  effect.  Three  thousand  souls  (Acts  2  :  41)  were 
converted. 

The  picture  of  the  state  of  the  early  church  given  in  Acts 


22         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


2 :  42-47  is  certainly  a  beautiful  one.     Here  is  peace,  joy 
and  harmony  in  the  faith  in  Christ. 

THE  TEACHING 

We  can  judge  very  fairly  of  the  teaching  in  this  period  of 
the  church  by  the  recorded  speeches  of  Peter  (Acts  2  :  14-40) 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost ;  at  the  time  of  the  heab'ng  of  the 
lame  man  at  the  Beautiful  gate  of  the  Temple  (Acts  3  :  6-26)  ; 
before  Annas,  the  high  priest  and  the  rulers,  elders  and 
scribes  (Acts  4 :  5-1 2) ;  of  Peter  and  John  (Acts 
4:  15,  19,  20);  of  Peter  and  the  other  Aposdes  (Acts 
5 :  18,  25,  29-32) ;  and  of  Stephen,  the  deacon  (Acts 
6:  8,  13-15;  7:  1-56). 

The  Substance. — The  essential  things  taught  by  the 
apostles  lie  upon  the  surface.  What  they  said  was  not  hard 
to  understand.  They  came  with  no  obscure  or  abstruse  doc- 
trine. They  were  to  be  "  witnesses  "  of  those  things  which 
they  had  seen  and  heard.  They  were  moved  upon  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  tell  their  story  of  Jesus  Christ  in  the  most  ef- 
fective way,  to  reach  men's  hearts. 

It  is  hardly  to  be  supposed  that  we  have  the  speeches  of 
the  apostles  recorded  in  full,  in  fact  in  Peter's  speech  at  the 
day  of  Pentecost  we  are  distinctly  told  that  "  with  many 
other  words  did  he  testify  and  exhort  "(Acts  2  :  40). 

There  is  also  a  certain  progress  in  the  teaching. 

1.  The  joining  of  the  old  dispensation  with  the  new. 
**  Peter  presented  the  gospel  as  the  fulfillment  of  prophecy 
and  the  completion  of  the  covenant  made  by  the  fathers. 
He  called  upon  his  hearers  to  repent  of  their  sins,  to  believe 
in  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  who  could  forgive  their  sins  and  set 
them  free  from  sin,  and  to  be  baptized  into  this  faith  thus 
outwardly  joining  together  as  a  communion  of  the  Messiah ; 
and  he  promised  as  the  result,  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
whose  wonder-working  presence  had  been  shown  to  them" 
(Acts  2  :  14-40). 

2.  The  supremacy  of  Christ  and  the  necessity  for  repent- 
ance, on  the  part  of  men,  and  forgiveness  of  sin  through 


The  Church  in  Jerusalem  23 


Him  alone,  are  more  and  more  earnestly  set  forth.  "Re- 
pent ye  therefore  and  be  converted  that  your  sins  may  be 
blotted  out,  when  the  times  of  refreshing  shall  come  from 
the  presence  of  the  Lord  "  (Acts  3:19).  *'  Neither  is  there 
salvation  in  any  other  :  for  there  is  none  other  name  under 
heaven  given  among  men  whereby  we  must  be  saved" 
(Acts  4  :  12).  This  teaching  is  very  manifest  in  the  speech 
of  Peter  after  he  healed  the  lame  man,  at  the  Beautiful  gate 
(Acts  3  :  12-26). 

Because  of  the  strengthening  testimony  of  the  apostles, 
along  this  line  (Acts  4:9-12;  5  :  29-31),  great  opposition 
arose  on  the  part  of  the  Jews  (Acts  4 :  1-4).  The  Sadducees 
were  especially  set  against  them  because  they  "preached 
through  Jesus  the  resurrection  from  the  dead"  and  caused 
them  to  be  put  in  prison.  The  climax  of  the  antagonism 
came,  however,  when  Stephen,  the  deacon,  declared  "that 
the  new  church  was  not  a  modification  of  Judaism  but  a  new 
order  "  (Acts  6  :  8-15  ;  7  :  1-56).  The  scribes  taught  that 
the  Mosaic  Law  provided  the  means  of  justification  for  men 
and  a  title  to  eternal  life.  The  disciples  of  Jesus  taught 
that  the  law  could  not  do  this,  but  that  the  death  of  Jesus 
procured  eternal  life  for  men,  that  His  resurrection  origi- 
nated it,  and  that  confidence  in  Him  secured  it.  The  re- 
sult was  not  only  that  a  multitude  believed  but  that  there 
arose  a  great  persecution  against  the  church  which  was  at 
Jerusalem  (Acts  8:1). 

The  Manner. — First,  of  teaching  and  witnessing  on  the 
part  of  the  apostles  was  with  a  profound  conviction  of  the 
truth  of  what  they  declared  (Acts  4:  19,  20;  5:  28-31), 
with  great  enthusiasm  and  boldness  (Acts  4:  13,  31).  Sec- 
ond, of  receiving  the  truth  by  those  who  heard  it.  By  some 
it  was  received,  as  it  is  always,  when  the  truth  is  preached, 
with  grateful  hearts,  and  by  others  it  was  rejected. 

THE  ORGANIZATION 

The  form  of  the  organization  of  the  church,  shown  in 
the  first  seven  chapters  of  The  Acts,  is  of  a  very  simple 


24         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


kind,  but  we  are  left  in  no  doubt  in  regard  to  the  firm  basis 
of  belief  on  which  it  rests. 

The  Head  of  the  Church  is  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  in  His 
name  that  the  apostles  preach ;  it  is  in  His  name  that  they 
ofifer  remission  of  sins — upon  repentance  ;  it  is  in  His  name 
that  believers  are  received  into  the  church ;  it  is  for  bearing 
His  name  that  they  are  persecuted  (Act?  2  :  38 ;  3  :  16; 
4  :  10,  12). 

The  Voluntary  Character. — No  one  allied  himself 
with  this  church  who  did  not  desire  to  do  so  and  because 
of  his  conviction  of — and  acceptance  of — the  truth  in  Jesus 
Christ.  Hence  the  organization  consisted  of  those  who  were 
profoundly  impressed  with  the  preaching  of  the  new  way — 
and  walked  in  it  (Acts  2  :  41). 

The  Ordinances. —  In  the  picture  of  the  early  church 
given  in  The  Acts,  immediately  after  the  close  of  Peter's 
sermon  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  it  is  shown  that  ''  they  who 
gladly  received  his  (Peter's)  word  were  baptized  .  .  . 
and  they  continued  steadfastly  in  the  apostles'  doctrine  and 
fellowship,  and  in  breaking  of  bread,  and  in  prayers"  (Acts 
2  :  41,  42). 

In  this  statement  there  are  five  things  asserted,  two  of 
which  are  that,  at  this  beginning  stage,  the  church  at 
once  took  up  the  observance  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper. 

The  Doctrine  and  Prayers. — Referring  again  to  Acts 
2  :  41,  42  it  is  here  stated  that  "they — the  disciples — con- 
tinued steadfastly  in  the  apostles'  doctrine  .  .  .  and  in 
prayers. ' ' 

The  apostles'  doctrine  was  the  supremacy  and  all-suffi- 
ciency of  Christ. 

Prayer  to  God  was  much  resorted  to  by  the  early  believers. 
They  found  it  an  absolute  necessity  for  them  in  the  diffi- 
culties, which  hedged  them  in.  An  example  of  the  prayers 
of  the  church  is  given  in  Acts  4:  24-30  where  when  the 
members  had  prayed  earnestly  for  the  manifestation  of  God's 
presence,  *  •  the  place  was  shaken  where  they  were  assembled 


The  Church  in  Jerusalem  2C 

together  and  they  were  all  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
they  spake  the  word  of  God  with  boldness  "  (Acts  4:31    ^'>) 
The  Social  Aspect.— ''And  all  that  believed  were  to- 
gether and  had  all  things  common  "  (Acts  2  :  44).      '*  And 
they  continued   daily  with   one  accord   in  the  temple,  and 
breakmg  bread  from  house  to  house,  did  eat  their  meat  with 
gladness  and  singleness  of  heart  (Acts  2 :  46).     It  is  doubt- 
ful if  the  world   has   ever  witnessed  such  a  perfect  social 
estate.     It  was  brought  about  by  no  passionate  appeal  against 
the  inequalities  in  the  lives  of  men  or  a  forced  communism, 
but  believers  in  one  Lord  and  Saviour  had  had  their  hearts 
so  touched  by  His  love  that  the  evil  and  selfishness  in  thera 
were  purged  away.     Tf  the  social  conditions  of  the  present 
day  are  ever  to  be  ii   proved,  the  improvement  must  come 
through  a  church  as  c   voted  to  its  Lord  as  this  early  church. 
That  the  Christian  community  of  goods  here  spoken  of  was 
purely  voluntary  and  not  required  or  demanded  is  shown  by 
the  case  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira  (Acts  5  :  3,  4)— whom 

Peter  tells  it  was  in  their  own  power  to  give  or  not  to  give ■ 

and  in  the  case  of  Barnabas,  who  is  specially  commended, 
and  yet  there  is  no  intimation  that  he  sold  everythino-  The 
point  IS  that  where  there  was  any  lack  it  was  made-up  and 
to  any  in  need  ample  help  was  given.  Here  was  one  Rreat 
loving  family  in  Christ.  The  principle  underlying  this 
Christian  community  of  goods  is  -that  all  possessing  goods 
and  industries  are  to  be  consecrated  to  God  in  the  service 
of  humanity  (Matthew  25  :  14-30 ;  Luke  13  :  6-9).  Chris- 
tian love  and  Christian  principles  are  to  abolish  poverty  and 
want  and  to  spread  the  gospel  over  the  earth,  and  we  are  to 
live  daily  according  to  the  brotherly  principle  exemplified 
m  this  early  church,  where  the  poor  man  knew  no  shame, 
the  rich  no  haughtiness." 

u^^u  F^^^^  ^^^^  °^  Discipline  was  forced  upon  the 
church  by  a  flagrant  instance  of  deliberate  lying  (Acts 
5  :  i-ii),  showing  how  evil  began  very  early  to  attempt  to 
enter  into  the  church. 

The  Election  of  the  First  Deacons.— We  are  told  in 


26         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 

the  gospels  how  the  apostles  were  chosen.  We  are  told  in 
the  sixth  chapter  of  Acts  (vs.  i-6)  how  the  deacons  were 
chosen  and  ordained  to  their  work.  In  regard  to  the  other 
officers  of  the  church  which  we  find  elsewhere  mentioned  we 
have  no  account — with  the  exception  of  the  missionaries 
(Acts  13  :  1-4) — of  how  they  were  chosen.  The  writers  of 
the  New  Testament  seem  to  be  concerned  chiefly  in  showing 
the  great  foundation  upon  which  the  church  was  to  rest 
rather  than  the  particular  form  or  forms  it  took  or  should 
take  on  this  foundation. 

The  occasion  of  the  election  of  the  seven  deacons  was  the 
murmuring  of  "  the  Grecians  against  the  Hebrews  because 
their  widows  were  neglected  in  tb^  daily  ministration.'* 
There  may  have  been  some  truth  ii  this  charge.  At  any 
rate  the  apostles  did  not  attempt,  t  emselves,  to  settle  the 
right  or  wrong  of  the  matter,  but  called  the  multitude  of 
disciples  together  and  left  the  matter  with  them  to  choose 
men  to  remedy  the  wrong,  if  any.  We  have  here  the  direct 
appeal  to  the  church  as  a  whole  to  settle  a  matter  in  dispute 
and  it  is  very  significant  of  the  way  things  were  carried  on. 
After  the  seven  deacons  were  chosen  they  were  consecrated 
to  their  work  by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the  apostles 
(Acts  6:  6). 

The  Grecians  mentioned  here,  were  "  true  Jews  from 
foreign  lands,  who  spoke  Greek,  used  the  Greek  instead  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  and  whose  mode  of  life  and  thinking  was 
Grecised.  The  Hebrews  were  the  pure  Jews  who  not 
necessarily  residing  in  Palestine,  still  used  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  and  spoke  the  dialect  of  the  sacred  tongue  then 
current;  there  was  a  natural  jealousy  between  these  two 
parties." 

Three  qualifications  were  required  in  the  deacons  to  be 
chosen:  i.  "Of  honest  report,"  men  with  goodness  that 
makes  itself  manifest.  2.  *'  Full  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  men 
who  are  thoroughly  religious.  3.  Wisdom,  men  of  prudence 
and  good  sense  (Acts  6  :  3).  How  well  these  first  deacons 
filled  their  office,  not  only  in  servmg  tables  but  in  preaching 


The  Church  in  Jerusalem  27 

the  gospel,  is  shown  by  their  record,  especially  in  the  cases 
of  Stephen  and  Philip. 

Bishops,  Elders  and  Other  Officers. — In  two  instances 
Paul  gives  a  list  of  the  chief  persons  in  the  church  (  i  Cor- 
inthians 12  :  28;  Ephesians  4:11)  but  the  exact  nature  of 
the  offices  held  by  some  of  them  has  not  been  quite  made 
plain.  In  the  case  of  elders  and  bishops  ''the  difference  of 
name  may  point  to  some  difference  of  origin  or  function ; 
but  in  the  New  Testament — and  Clement — the  terms  are 
more  or  less  equivalent.  Thus  the  Elders  of  Ephesus  are 
reminded  (Acts  20  :  28)  that  they  are  bishops.  So,  too,  we 
find  sundry  bishops  in  the  single  church  of  Philippi.  In  the 
pastoral  Epistles  Timothy  appoints  bishops  and  deacons, 
Titus  elders  and  deacons,  though  (i  Timothy  5:17)  Timothy 
also  has  elders  under  him.  The  qualifications  also  of  a 
bishop  as  laid  down  for  Timothy  are  practically  those  of  the 
elder  as  described  to  Titus  and  equally  point  to  ministerial 
duties  in  contrast  to  what  we  call  episcopal "  (Church  Gov- 
ernment, Hastings'  Bible  Dictionary).  In  regard  to  the 
offices  held  by  Timothy  and  Titus  they  were  evidently  of  a 
temporary  nature  as  both  2  Timothy  and  Titus  are  letters 
of  recall  from  their  mission  ( 2  Timothy  4:9;  Titus  3  :  12). 
It  is  quite  evident  that  the  primitive  church  was  quite  simply 
organized  and  officered. 

Persecution  began  as  soon  as  it  was  fairly  understood  that 
the  apostles  were  preaching  the  supremacy  of  Jesus  Christ 
(Acts  4:  2,  3;   5  :  17,  18,  28;   7  :  56-58). 

The  Growth  of  the  church  was  quick  and  strong.  The 
numbers  of  believers  increased  very  rapidly.  The  day  of 
Pentecost  saw  3,000  conversions  (Acts  2  :  41).  In  the 
fourth  chapter  and  fourth  verse  of  Acts  the  number  has  in- 
creased to  5,000.  Again  **  multitudes  "  of  converts  are 
spoken  of  (Acts  5  :  14)  and  that  "a  great  company  of 
priests  were  obedient  to  the  faith  "  (Acts  6  :  7). 


28         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


ACTIVITIES 


The  Field — while  it  is  the  world — up  to  the  martyrdom  of 
Stephen  (Acts  7:59,  60)  was  Jerusalem.  While  the  area  of 
preaching  of  the  apostles  and  disciples  was  thus  seemingly  lim- 
ited— for  about  five  years — in  reality  it  was  not  limited,  for  the 
Jews,  who  were  constantly  coming  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  2  :  8-1 2) 
from  every  quarter  of  the  Roman  empire,  must  have  carried 
back  the  glad  news  to  their  distant  homes  of  the  wonderful 
things  in  regard  to  the  Christ,  which  were  being  preached 
in  the  Holy  City.  Thus  the  way  was  being  prepared  for 
a  further  rapid  spread  of  the  gospel. 

The  Equipment. — The  church  at  this  time  had  no 
buildings,  none  of  the  New  Testament  writings  were  in  ex- 
istence, but  it  did  have  men  who  had  walked  and  talked 
with  Jesus  Christ,  who  had  been  baptized  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  who  were  thoroughly  alive  to  the  great  mission 
before  them. 

The  Help  of  the  Holy  Spirit. — Nothing  was  done  in 
presenting  Christ  to  the  multitude  until  the  descent  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  The  miraculous  (Acts  3:  1-16;  4:  31; 
5:12,  15,  16)  or  supernatural  element  in  these  first  chapters 
of  the  Acts  cannot  be  ignored  or  eliminated  without  doing 
violence  to  the  narrative.  This  element  is  part  of  the  historical 
record  and  is  to  be  treated  as  such ;  it  need  not  be  consid- 
ered as  contrary  to  law,  but  may  be  by  a  law  of  God  which 
we  do  not  as  yet  understand,  but  of  which  we  have  the  mar- 
vellous record. 

The  apostles  and  disciples  are  inspired  and  encouraged  to 
do  their  great  work  through  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  Joy. — There  was  great  rejoicing,  on  the  part  of  the 
apostles,  in  preaching  and  in  persecution  (Acts  5  :  41),  and 
gladness  on  the  part  of  the  multitude  who  received  theii 
message  (Acts  2  :  46). 


The  Church  in  Jerusalem  29 


QUESTIONS 

What  can  be  said  of  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  church  ? 
What  of  the  first  candidates  for  membership  ?  The  first  ser- 
mon ?  The  first  form  of  prayer  ?  The  first  missionaries  ?  The 
two  sacraments?  The  pohcy  ?  What  is  the  significance  of  the 
Baptism  of  the  Holy  Spirit  ?  What  was  the  general  preparation 
for  this  baptism?  The  immediate  preparation?  What  can  be 
said  of  the  fulfillment  of  the  promise  of  the  Holy  Spirit?  What 
is  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit?  Give  some  effects  of  the 
presence  of  this  power.  What  can  be  said  of  the  teaching  of 
the  church  ?  The  substance  ?  The  manner  ?  What  can  be 
said  of  the  organization  of  the  church?  The  Head  of  the 
church  ?  The  voluntary  character  ?  The  ordinances  ?  The 
doctrine  and  prayers  ?  The  social  aspect  ?  The  first  case  of 
discipline?  The  election  of  the  first  deacons?  The  persecu- 
tion? The  growth?  What  can  be  said  of  the  work  of  the 
church  ?  The  field  ?  The  equipment  ?  The  help  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  ?    The  joy  ? 


Study  II 
THE  CHURCH  IN   ANTIOCH 

JERUSALEM  TO  ANTIOCH 

From  the  first — and  Jewish — great  centre  of  Christianity 
in  Jerusalem  to  the  second — and  Gentile — centre  in  Antioch 
there  were  a  number  of  important  steps  (Acts  8  :  1-12  :  25). 

Time.     About  35-46  a.  d. 

The  Scattering  Abroad  of  the  Members  of  the 
Jerusalem  Church  (Acts  8  ;  1-4). — This  dispersion,  which 
led  to  such  large  results,  took  place  between  five  and  six 
years  (35  or  36  a.  d.)  after  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
at  the  day  of  Pentecost  and  the  formal  organization  of  the 
Jerusalem  church. 

The  immediate  cause  was  the  persecution  which  arose 
after  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen.  This  was  an  exclusively 
Jewish  matter.  Undoubtedly  the  leaders  of  the  Jews  took 
advantage  of  the  unsettled  state  of  the  Roman  empire  at 
this  time — and  the  summons,  to  Rome,  of  Pilate  to  meet  the 
charges  against  him — to  press  their  case  against  the  Chris- 
tians. The  searching  nature  and  merciless  severity  of  this 
persecution  are  seen  in  the  case  of  Saul  who  made  "  havoc 
of  the  church,  entering  into  every  house  and  haling  men 
and  women  committed  them  to  prison  "  (Acts  8:3).  '*No 
man's  house  was  safe  from  the  persecutor."  The  Christian 
church  was  laid  waste. 

While  the  immediate  effect  of  the  activity  of  the  enemies 
of  the  church  seemed  very  bad,  yet  in  reality  it  was  a  bless- 
ing and  marked  a  new  epoch  in  the  extension  of  the  gospel. 
The  great  effort  put  forth  to  stamp  out  the  new  religion 
caused  it  to  be  spread  abroad  and  to  increase  with  wonderful 
rapidity.  "Therefore  they  that  were  scattered  abroad  went 
everywhere  preaching  the  gospel  "  (Acts  8  :  4)  <<and  they 

30 


The  Church  in  Antioch  3 1 

were  all  scattered  abroad  throughout  the  regions  of  Judea 
and  Samaria,  except  the  apostles"  (Acts  8  :  i).  The  way 
for  this  new  campaign  had  been  prepared  for  by  Jesus 
Christ,  when,  in  bodily  form  He  passed  through  this  territory. 
It  may  seem  strange  that  the  apostles  remained  in  Jerusalem 
while  the  deacons  were  compelled  to  flee,  yet  the  deacons 
had  lately  come  very  largely  and  quickly  into  the  public 
view  by  their  intense  earnestness  and  zeal  in  the  new  cause 
and  they,  after  Stephen's  speech  and  martyrdom,  were 
doubtless  singled  out  as  special  subjects  of  persecution. 

The  men  who  had  been  selected  by  the  church,  like 
Stephen  and  Philip,  to  perform  a  social  service  for  the  new 
community  (Acts  6  :  2,  3,  5 )  we  now  find  in  the  forefront 
of  the  new  preaching  cause  of  Christ  (Acts  6  :  8-15  ;  8  ;  5, 
6,  26,  40).  This  shows,  for  one  thing,  that  the  Spirit  would 
not  have  men  seek  only  the  social  welfare  of  their  fellow 
men,  but  also  the  higher  spiritual  good.  Social  good  to  the 
individual  or  community  always  follows  spiritual  regenera- 
tion, but  social  elevation  alone  does  not  always  bring  in 
spiritual  good. 

The  Organization  of  the  Church  in  Samaria 
(Acts  8  :  5-25). — Possibly  we  should  read  in  Acts  8  :  5  that 
**  Philip  went  down  to  a — rather  than  the — city  of  Samaria" 
in  which  case  the  city  might  be  Sychar  or  Shechem,  but  the 
matter  of  the  particular  locality  is  unimportant  as  the  gospel 
was  preached  at  this  time  in  many  places  in  Samaria 
(Acts  8  :  25). 

This  region  was  the  first  district  into  which  the  word  was 
carried  beyond  the  immediate  Jewish  pale.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  while  fleeing  from  persecution  the  disciples  did 
not  hide,  but  proclaimed  everywhere  their  message. 

The  cause  of  the  organization  of  the  church  in  Samaria 
was  the  preaching  of  Christ. 

The  eff'ect  was  that  the  people  gave  heed  to  what  they 
heard.  There  were  numbers  of  manifestations  of  divine 
power  in  the  casting  out  of  unclean  spirits  and  the  healing  of 
the  sick. 


32         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


The  one  spurious  convert  mentioned  is  Simon  Magus  (Acts 
8  :  9-13,  18-24)  3^"d  he  has  received  large  attention  from 
writers,  upon  this  period,  as  he  is  the  type  of  a  man  who  in 
all  ages  has  sought  to  make  gain  out  of  the  church  by  join- 
ing it  as  a  member,  and  because  he  is  also  a  typical  represent- 
ative of  '*  the  travelling  impostors  who  swarmed  over 
Greece  and  Rome,  at  this  time,  pretending  to  magical 
powers  derived  from  the  spirit  world  ;  they  were  readers  of 
the  stars,  interpreters  of  dreams,  fortune-tellers,  medicine 
men — in  brief  they  exercised  the  same  arts  as  the  modem 
fortune-teller  and  by  much  the  same  methods."  PhiHp  in 
his  preaching  seems  to  have  paid  little  or  no  attention  to 
Simon  but  the  falling  away  of  the  multitude  from  the  latter 
led  him  to  pretend  a  conversion  and  to  seek  to  buy  the  gift 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts  8  :  18,  19). 

The  chief  effort  of  Philip  was  to  convince  men  of  their 
sins,  lead  them  to  repentance,  point  them  to  their  Saviour  and 
reconcile  them  to  God ;  he  endeavoured  to  do  good  to  men  in 
their  bodies  and  souls.  Simon  sought  to  do  wonders  that  he 
might  attach  the  people  to  himself  and  to  get  large  money  by 
working  upon  their  credulity  and  "  giving  out  that  himself 
was  some  great  one."  There  is  the  same  contrast  between 
the  false  and  the  true  to-day. 

So  great  was  the  work  in  Samaria  that  when  the  apostles 
heard  of  it  in  Jerusalem  they  sent  unto  them  Peter  and  John 
(Acts  8:  14),  ''Who  when  they  were  come  down  prayed 
that  they  might  receive  the  Holy  Ghost"  (Acts  8:  15-17). 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  now,  as  at  the  beginning,  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  unceasingly  active  in  building  up  the  church.  The 
apostles  taught  that  it  was  not  only  necessary  to  turn  from  sin 
to  righteousness  but  it  was  also  necessary  to  be  born  into  the 
kingdom  by  a  divine  power,  as  Jesus  had  taught  before  them 
(John  3  :  5-8). 

The  Mission  to  Ethiopia  (Acts  8:  26-40). — This  is 
the  Greek  and  Roman  word  for  the  Hebrew  name  Gush. 
In  its  widest  significance  it  included  Nubia,  Sennar, 
Kordofan  and  Northern  Abyssinia,  but  in  its  more  limited 


The  Church  in  Antioch  33 


application  it  included  only  that  portion  of  territory  from 
the  junction  of  the  White  and  Blue  branches  of  the  Nile  to 
the  south  border  of  Egypt  and  known  as  the  kingdom  of 
Meroe.  The  name  Candace,  mentioned  as  queen  of  the 
Ethiopians  in  the  narrative,  is  a  dynastic  title. 

In  the  establishment  of  this  mission  the  course  of  events 
is  plainly  marked  out.  The  divine  element  comes  to  the 
front  in  the  speaking  to  Philip  by  an  angel  of  the  Lord.  He 
is  told  to  go  to  the  *' South  unto  the  way  that  goeth  down 
from  Jerusalem  unto  Gaza."  Obeying  the  divine  command 
he  meets  the  treasurer  of  the  queen  of  Ethiopia  who  reading 
from  the  Old  Testament,  a  prophecy  concerning  Christ,  asks 
an  explanation  of  it  from  Philip.  This  gives  Philip  an  op- 
portunity to  present  the  crucified  and  risen  Christ.  The 
eunuch  believes,  is  baptized  and  proceeds  on  his  way  carry- 
ing the  gospel  to  his  country.  Here  the  curtain  shuts  down, 
but  we  know  this  much  that  ever  since  that  time  Abyssinia 
has  been,  and  now  is,  a  Christian  kingdom. 

In  this  brief  narrative  we  get  a  glimpse  of  how  the  church 
was  enlarging  her  borders  in  these  early  days  of  primitive 
Christianity. 

The  Conversion  of  Saul  (Acts  9 :  1-22). — This  is 
another  epoch  making  event.  The  arch  persecutor  who 
*'  made  havoc  of  the  church  "  now  becomes  its  chief  advocate. 

The  infant  church  had  good  cause  to  remember  Saul.  He 
took  care  of  the  clothes  of  the  witnesses  who  killed  Stephen 
(Acts  7  :  58)  and  he  left  no  stone  unturned  to  drive  the  be- 
lievers in  Christ  out  of  Jerusalem.  In  carrying  his  persecut- 
ing zeal  to  Damascus  he  must  have  been  informed  of  a  some- 
what considerable  body  of  Christians  in  that  city,  which  was 
finely  situated  and  had  a  large  population.  We  have  no  ac- 
count of  how  the  gospel  was  carried  to  Damascus. 

Saul  was  born  in  the  university  town  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia, 
but  at  the  proper  age  he  was  sent  to  Jerusalem  to  study  the 
law  under  the  celebrated  Jewish  teacher  Gamaliel,  He  had 
a  singularly  acute  mind  combined  with  a  boundless  enthusi- 
asm for  the  cause  which  he  espoused. 


34         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


It  was  on  the  way  to  Damascus  that  his  conversion  took 
place,  when  his  mind  was  full  of  plans  to  put  an  end  to 
Christianity.  This  marvellous  event,  which  in  the  changes  it 
has  wrought  in  the  world  is  greater  than  any  decisive  battle 
ever  fought  between  nations,  is  related  in  very  few  words  (Acts 
9:  1-8).  It  is  very  evident  that,  after  he  had  fallen  to  the 
earth  from  the  effect  of  a  blinding  light,  his  mind  was  per- 
fectly clear  and  he  understood  what  was  taking  place  for  he 
asks  the  question,  **  Who  art  thou,  Lord  ?  "  He  shows  here 
the  character  of  a  man  who  is  perfectly  collected  and  cool  in 
his  mind  under  all  circumstances.  The  Lord  whom  he  per- 
secuted convinced  him  that  he  was  wrong  in  his  attack  upon 
His  church  and  won  him  to  Himself.  His  beliefs  and  his 
whole  life  plan,  were  in  consequence  of  his  conversion,  radic- 
ally changed.  Besides  the  report  by  Luke  of  his  conver- 
sion, in  Acts  9  :  1-8,  Paul  gives  two  other  accounts,  one  to 
the  Jews  in  the  Temple  court  (Acts  22  :  6-1 1)  and  the  other 
before  Agrippa  at  Csesarea  (Acts  26:  12-20).  He  stoutly 
maintains  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  that  he  received 
(Galatians  i :  n,  12,  8-24)  his  revelation  of  the  gospel  from 
Christ.  It  was  the  real  appearance  of  the  risen  Christ  to 
Paul  which  made  him  a  Christian,  Christianity's  most  efficient 
missionary  and  next  to  Christ,  its  greatest  thinker,  preacher 
and  teacher. 

Paul  at  once  began  to  preach  Christ  in  the  synagogues  that 
"He  is  the  Son  of  God  "  (Acts  9 :  20),  but  he  found  now 
that  the  Jews,  while  they  were  confounded  and  amazed, 
sought  to  kill  him  (Acts  9:  21-25),  ^^^  when  he  had 
escaped  and  had  come  to  Jerusalem  the  disciples  were  afraid 
of  him  (Acts  9 :  26-30),  so  he  returns  to  Tarsus. 

From  this  time  35  or  ^6  a.  d.  until  Barnabas  seeks  him  to 
take  up  the  work  in  Antioch  (Acts  11  :  25),  in  42  or  43  a.  d. 
Paul  dwells  in  comparative  obscurity,  but  God  is  really  pre- 
paring him  for  his  great  missionary  work.  In  Galatians 
(l  :  17-24)  he  declares  that  these  years  of  retirement  were 
spent  in  Arabia,  Syria  and  Cilicia. 

Peaceful    Times   (Acts  9:   31-43). — "Then  had  the 


The  Church  in  Antioch  35 


churches  rest  throughout  all  Judea  and  Galilee  and  Samaria, 
and  were  edified  and  walking  in  the  fear  of  the  Lord  and  in 
the  comfort  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  were  multiplied." 

After  the  conversion  of  Saul  the  persecution  doubtless  soon 
burned  itself  out.  There  were  few  men  with  his  fiery  zeal 
to  keep  it  alive.  Then  too  the  Jews  soon  had  large  troubles 
of  their  own  which  gave  them  little  time  to  keep  up  the  per- 
secution against  the  Christians.  When  Caius  Caesar  Caligula 
became  Emperor  of  Rome  in  37  a.  d.  he  claimed  that  divine 
honors  should  be  paid  to  him.  He  commanded  that  his 
statue  be  set  up  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  with  this  in- 
scription, '<  Caius  the  New  Incarnation  of  Jupiter."  When 
this  command  became  known  to  the  Jews  they  assembled  in 
a  vast  throng  before  the  palace  of  the  Roman  proconsul  and, 
uttering  wild  and  piteous  cries,  declared  they  would  die 
rather  than  have  this  sacrilege  committed.  The  most  how- 
ever that  the  Jews  could  accomplish  was  to  have  the  Temple 
remain  unoccupied  by  the  statue,  but  many  altars,  where 
divine  honors  were  paid  to  the  emperor,  were  erected  out- 
sides  its  gates.  Troublous  times  continued  for  the  Jews 
imtil  January  24th,  41  A.  D.,  when  Caligula  was  mur- 
dered. 

During  these  few  years  of  freedom  from  persecution  the 
church  had  time  not  only  to  engage  in  new  work,  but  to 
strengthen  that  which  had  already  been  accomplished.  We 
have  an  account  in  Acts  9 :  32-44  of  how  one  Apostle 
(Peter)  was  occupied  during  this  time  in  passing  through 
"  all  quarters  "  and  some  things  that  he  did  at  Lydda,  Saron 
and  Joppa.  Doubtless  the  other  workers  were  similarly  oc- 
cupied. 

The  Vision  of  Peter  and  the  circumstances  attending 
it  (Acts  10  :  9-16,  1-48  ;   11  :  1-18). 

The  time  had  come  when  Gentiles  were  to  be  received 
into  the  church  and  it  was  to  be  broadened  from  a  Jewish  to 
a  universal  church.  The  Gentiles  at  this  time  were  forbid- 
den to  enter  the  most  sacred  places  of  the  Jewish  worship. 
The  Jews  by  the  Mosaic  law  were  interdicted  from  articles 


36         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


of  food  in  common  use  by  the  Gentiles.  There  were  other 
barriers. 

Was  it  necessary  or  not  for  a  Gentile  to  become  a  Jew  be- 
fore he  became  a  Christian  ?  This  was  shortly  to  become  a 
burning  question. 

Peter  is  taught,  by  his  vision  of  the  great  sheet  let  down 
full  of  all  manner  of  four  footed  beasts  and  creeping  things 
which  he  is  to  use  in  disregard  oftheLevitical  law  (Leviticus 
II  :  2-25),  that  a  new  era  is  about  to  dawn.  The  teaching 
is  that  God,  who  made  the  old  law,  has  replaced  it  with  a 
new  law  and  that  the  wall  of  partition  is  broken  down  be- 
tween Jew  and  Gentile.  The  story  is  here  told  of  Cornelius 
who  seeks  instruction  in  the  Christian  way  at  the  hands  of 
Peter.  The  apostle  goes  to  Cornelius  in  Caesarea,  after  see- 
ing his  vision,  and  says  ''of  a  truth  I  perceive  that  God  is 
no  respecter  of  persons.  But  in  every  nation  he  that  feareth 
Him  and  worketh  righteousness,  is  accepted  with  Him." 
Then  he  presents  Christ  as  the  chosen  of  God  (Acts  x  :  34-48), 
and  baptizes  and  receives  into  the  church  not  only  Cor- 
nelius, but  many  of  his  friends,  who  accepted  Christ  as  their 
Saviour. 

When  Peter  returned  to  Jerusalem,  he  was  remonstrated 
with  by  the  Jewish  Christians  for  eating  with  Gentiles,  but 
when  he  had  told  them  of  the  whole  matter,  "They  held 
their  peace  and  glorified  God,  saying,  then  hath  God  also 
to  the  Gentiles  granted  repentance  unto  life"  (Acts  11  :  18, 
1-18). 

THE  CITY  AND  THE  WORK 

The  church  was  growing  in  all  directions.  Judea,  Sa- 
maria, Gaza,  Ethiopia,  Azotus,  Caesarea,  Damascus,  Tarsus, 
Lydda,  Joppa,  Phenice,  and  Cyprus  are  some  of  the  regions 
and  places  where  Christ  found  many  followers  in  the  first 
twelve  years  after  His  resurrection. 

At  length  what  was  to  be  the  second  great  centre  of  Chris- 
tianity,   and    from    which    were    to    go    forth    the    most 


The  Church  in  Antioch  37 


momentous  influences,  the  city  of  Antioch  is  reached 
(Acts  II  :  19-30). 

The  Importance  of  this  City. — Antioch  was  the  third 
city  in  population  (500,000)  and  influence  in  the  Roman 
Empire,  ranking  next  to  Rome  and  Alexandria.  Seleucus 
Nicator,  Alexander's  greatest  general,  built  the  city  in 
300  B.  c,  and  gave  to  it  his  father's  name,  Antiochus.  It 
was  the  capital  of  Syria,  at  the  time  Christianity  entered  its 
gates.  It  was  situated  about  300  miles  north  of  Jerusalem, 
on  the  Orontes  River,  with  Selucia  as  its  seaport  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  and  sixteen  miles  distant.  It  traded  with 
all  parts  of  the  world ;  caravans  coming  to  it  even  from 
India  and  Persia ;  its  ships  sailed  to  every  seaport  on  the 
Mediterranean  sea.  This  trade  brought  great  gain  to  the 
city.  The  population  was  of  all  kinds  and  all  nationalities, 
Romans,  Greeks,  Syrians,  Jews,  freemen,  slaves,  the  ig- 
norant and  the  cultured.  It  was  a  centre  of  art  and 
literature.  ''The  principal  street  traversed  the  entire 
length  of  the  city  from  east  to  west,  a  distance  of  about 
four  miles,  having  four  parallel  rows  of  columns,  forming 
a  broad  road  in  the  middle,  open  to  the  sky,  and  on  each 
side  a  narrow  covered  way  or  portico.  The  road  in  the 
middle  was  laid  with  granite  in  the  time  of  Antoninus 
Pius." 

In  morals,  so  bad  were  they,  that  the  Roman  writer  Juve- 
nal complains  that  Antioch's  dissipation  and  corruption  had 
corrupted  even  Rome's  corruption.  About  four  miles  from 
the  city,  was  the  famous  pleasure  grounds  of  Daphne,  where 
was  a  temple  dedicated  to  Apollo.  Here  "  under  the  cli- 
mate of  Syria  and  the  wealthy  patronage  of  Rome,  all  that 
was  beautiful  in  nature  and  art  had  created  a  sanctuary  for 
a  perpetual  festival  of  vice.  The  name  of  Daphne  became 
proverbial  for  its  luxurious  festivals,  unbridled  debauchery 
and  unnatural  vices." 

The  Founding  of  the  First  Gentile  Church  (about 
42  or  43  A.  D.). — The  narrative  in  Acts  11  :  19-21  turns 
back  to  Acts  8:1-4  and  shows  another  route  along  which 


38         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


the  gospel  was  proclaimed  by  the  disciples,  who  were  scat- 
tered abroad  upon  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen. 

In  this  way  we  are  told  how  the  gospel  came  to  Antioch 
and  who  were  the  organizers  of  the  church.  They  were  men 
of  Cyprus — a  large  island  about  sixty  miles  from  the  coast 
of  Palestine — and  Cyrene — an  important  city  on  the  north 
coast  of  Africa.  These  were  undoubtedly  Greek  speaking 
Jews  and  they  spoke  to  Grecians ;  this  word  as  here  used  in 
the  New  Testament  means  the  Greeks,  that  is  Gentiles,  and 
the  contrast  is  marked  between  the  nineteenth  verse  where 
the  Jews  only  were  addressed  and  the  twentieth  verse  where 
the  disciples  turn  to  the  Greeks  or  Gentiles.  The  address- 
ing of  the  Gentiles  was  a  decidedly  new  departure. 

The  substance  of  their  preaching  was  the  Lord  Jesus.  In 
this  city  of  wealth,  fashion,  luxury  and  vice,  it  would  seem 
as  if  there  could  be  no  common  ground  upon  which  the  peo- 
ple could  be  touched  by  the  message  of  the  disciples,  but 
*'  the  hand  of  the  Lord  was  with  them,  and  a  great  number 
believed,  and  turned  to  the  Lord  "  (21  vs.). 

The  Visit  of  Barnabas  (Acts  11  :  22-24). — The  tidings 
of  the  great  success  of  the  Christian  workers  at  Antioch 
speedily  reached  Jerusalem.  It  was  natural  that  the  mother 
church  should  desire  to  know  about  the  new  church  at 
Antioch,  how  it  was  founded  and  what  was  being  taught, 
especially  if  it  was  reported  that  the  gospel  was  being 
preached  to  the  Gentiles.  After  the  receiving  of  Cornelius 
(Acts  II  :  1-18)  into  the  church  by  Peter,  and  the  action 
upon  it,  there  must  have  been  some  anxiety  lest  in  Antioch 
there  should  be  a  division  between  Christian  Jews  and 
Christian  Gentiles,  for  there  were  many  Jews  in  the  city  and 
some  doubtless  were  interested  in  the  new  m-ovement.  The 
differenceSj  afterwards  so  manifest,  between  the  Jew  who 
accepted  Christ  as  the  Messiah  and  who  still  obeyed  the 
law  and  the  Gentile  who  accepted  Christ  as  his  Saviour  and 
did  not  become  a  Jew  and  practice  the  law,  had  not  yet 
reached  the  acute  state. 

In  sending  Barnabas  to  inquire  into  affairs,  the  church 


The  Church  in  Antioch  39 

at  Jerusalem  made  a  wise  selection.  He  was  a  native  of 
Cyprus,  a  Greek  speaking  Jew  and  was  well  acquainted  in 
Antioch  and  had  the  confidence  of  the  Jews  in  Jerusalem. 
He  was  likely,  as  a  Levite,  to  be  true  to  the  Jewish  religion. 
When  he  came  to  the  new  church  it  is  recorded  :  i.  What 
he  saw,  "the  grace  of  God."  2.  What  he  felt,  he  ''was 
glad."  3.  What  he  did — "he  exhorted  them  all  with  pur- 
pose of  heart  that  they  would  cleave  unto  the  Lord " 
(23  vs.).  He  recognized  that  the  main  thing  was  to  have 
these  new  converts  be  loyal  to  Jesus  Christ.  His  visit  was  a 
great  help  to  the  church  (24  vs.) 

The  Bringing  in  of  Paul  (25,  26  vs.). — Very  soon, 
with  the  increase  of  the  work  and  the  many  open  doors, 
Barnabas  saw  that  more  and  very  efficient  aid  must  be 
secured  if  any  work  adequate  to  the  size  and  importance 
of  the  city  was  to  be  accomplished.  He  then  departed 
to  Tarsus  to  seek  Saul.  A  number  of  years  had  passed 
since  the  conversion  of  Saul  and  he  had  had  no  ade- 
quate place  for  the  exercise  of  his  remarkable  gifts.  Barna- 
bas had  introduced  him  to  the  apostles  in  Jerusalem,  but 
they  seemed  with  the  disciples  not  to  take  to  him 
(Acts  9  :  26-30).  Now  however  his  opportunity  had  come 
and  Barnabas  when  he  had  found  him  brought  him  unto 
Antioch.  It  is  evident  from  the  narrative  that  a  multitude 
of  people  were  taught  in  the  new  way,  for  Barnabas  and  Saul 
continued  for  some  time  in  the  city.  A  year  is  mentioned, 
but  it  seems  plain  that  they  preached  and  taught  after  the 
expiration  of  this  period. 

Material  aid  was  sent  to  Jerusalem  by  this  young  and  vig- 
orous church  in  a  time  of  famine,  showing  that  it  very  early 
exercised  the  benevolent  spirit  (Acts  11  :  27-30). 

The  New  Name  (26  vs.). — "  The  disciples  were  called 
Christians  first  in  Antioch."  It  seems  probable  that  this 
name  was  not  assumed  by  the  followers  of  Christ  or  given 
to  them  by  the  Jews,  but  that  it  was  given  to  them  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Antioch  because  there  was  a  necessity  for  a 
name  for  a  community  which  was  composed  both  of  Jews 


4-0         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


and  Gentiles.  Some  scholars,  however,  assert  that  the  new 
name  was  applied  at  first  only  to  Gentiles  who  accepted 
Christ. 

The  Number  of  Christians. — We  have  no  means  of 
estimating  the  number  of  believers,  save  through  the  expres- 
sions, '^a  great  number"  and  "much  people"  (twice  re- 
peated), but  we  can  safely  say  from  the  pov/er  exerted  by 
this  city  over  the  Christian  world  later  on  that  these  expres- 
sions are  of  great  significance. 

If  Christianity  was  able  to  gain  so  strong  a  foothold  as  it 
did  in  Antioch  and  have  such  a  mighty  influence  go  forth 
from  it  that  the  city's  ancient  evil  fame  in  morals  is  blotted 
out  under  its  renown  at  the  place  where  the  disciples  were 
first  called  Christians,  and  be  known  as  the  centre  of  a  great 
missionary  enterprise,  we  need  not  fear  lest  this  faith  shall 
not  be  able  to  solve  any  problems  and  conquer  any  set  of 
adverse  circumstances  in  any  city  where  it  is  preached,  with 
the  zeal  which  animated  Barnabas  and  Saul. 

RENEWED  PERSECUTION 

The  Martyrdom  of  James  (Acts  12:  i,  2). — The  nar- 
rative now  turns  back  to  the  state  of  the  mother  church. 
When  the  disciples  were  having  such  success  in  Antioch 
there  was  great  trouble  in  Jerusalem. 

The  Jews,  some  time  after  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Caligula  in  41  a.  d.,  turned  their  attention  again  to  the 
rapidly  increasing  power  of  the  Christian  church.  Herod 
Agrippa  I — grandson  of  Herod  the  Great — had  helped 
Claudius,  the  successor  of  Caligula,  to  become  emperor. 
In  return  Herod  Agrippa  was  made  king  by  Claudius  and 
had  many  favours  showered  upon  him.  Herod  lived  in 
Jerusalem  and  curried  favour  with  the  Jews  in  every  way. 
It  is  this  Herod  who,  desiring  to  please  the  Jews,  put  forth 
**his  hands  to  afflict  certain  of  the  church  and  killed  James, 
the  brother  of  John,  with  the  sword."  This  took  place  in 
the  spring  of  the  year  44  a.  d.     We  can  well  imagine  the 


The  Church  in  Antioch  41 


stir  that  this  act  aroused  in  the  Christian  community,  who 
had  for  some  years  enjoyed  immunity  from  persecution. 

The  Imprisonment  of  Peter  (Acts  12  :  3-19). — Herod 
Agrippa  I  evidently  was  following  a  shrewd  plan  to  strike  at 
the  Christian  leaders,  first,  and  to  put  them  out  of  the  way. 
When  he  saw  that  the  execution  of  James  pleased  the  Jews 
he  proceeded  to  take  Peter  also  and  put  him  in  prison.  To 
make  sure  of  him  he  was  bound  with  two  chains  to  two 
soldiers,  one  on  either  side.  The  intention  was  to  have  him 
executed  after  Easter. 

This  was  a  crisis  in  the  affairs  of  the  church  and  prayer 
was  made  unceasing  for  the  release  of  Peter.  Prayer  was 
the  only  weapon  which  could  be  used  and  so  effective  was 
it  that  Peter  was  released  to  the  great  joy  of  the  disciples. 

The  Death  of  the  Persecutor,  Herod  Agrippa  I 
(Acts  12  :  20-23). — Within  about  a  month  after  the  death 
of  James,  the  king  went  to  a  magnificent  festival,  held  in 
honour  of  the  Roman  Emperor  at  Caesarea.  There  before 
a  vast  throng  he  appeared  "  in  all  the  pride  of  state  in  robes 
inwrought  with  silver  thread.  The  time  chosen  was  day- 
break so  that  the  rising  sun  shining  on  this  grand  mantle 
lighted  it  into  dazzling  splendour."  When  Herod  made  an 
oration  and  the  people  shouted,  **  It  is  the  voice  of  a  god 
and  not  of  a  man"  he  did  not  rebuke  them  but  drank  in 
the  shallow  flattery.  Luke  tells  us  that  he  was  smitten,  be- 
cause he  gave  not  God  the  glory,  by  the  angel  of  the  Lord, 
was  eaten  of  worms  and  died. 

The  Result  of  the  Persecution. — ''The  word  of  God 
grew  and  multiplied  "  (Acts  12  :  24).  It  is  the  same  story 
repeated  over  and  over  again  ;  attacks  upon  the  church  only 
cause  it  to  increase  in  numbers  and  power. 


42         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


QUESTIONS 

Jerusalem  to  Antioch  ;  what  were  the  important  steps  from 
the  first  to  the  second  great  centre  of  Christianity  ?  What  can 
be  said  of  the  scattering  abroad  of  the  members  of  the  Jeru- 
salem church  ?  The  organization  of  the  church  in  Samaria  ? 
The  mission  to  Ethiopia  ?  The  conversion  of  Saul  ?  Peaceful 
times  ?  The  vision  of  Peter  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the  work 
in  Antioch  ?  The  importance  of  this  city  ?  The  founding  of  the 
church  ?  The  visit  of  Barnabas  ?  The  bringing  in  of  Paul  ? 
The  new  name  ?  The  number  of  Christians  ?  What  can  be 
said  of  the  renewed  persecution  ?  The  martyrdom  of  James  ? 
The  imprisonment  of  Peter?  The  death  of  the  persecutor? 
The  result  of  the  persecution  ? 


Study  III 
THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  PROVINCES 

CONDITIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

Territorial  Expansion. — The  church,  from  its  vantage 
ground  in  Antioch  and  from  the  beginning  of  the  first  mis- 
sionary journey  of  Paul  (Acts  13  :  1-4),  begins  to  find  a 
wider  field  for  its  work  and  to  take  upon  itself  a  universal 
character.  It  was  now  to  carry  the  gospel,  according  to  the 
command  of  its  Lord,  into  all  the  world  (Matthew  28 :  19; 
Acts  1:8).     This  movement  is  yet  in  progress. 

Hitherto  the  church  has  ministered  mostly  to  the  Jews 
and  to  the  Gentiles  who  have  come  more  or  less  closely  in 
contact  with  the  Jews  and  whose  dwelling  places  have  not 
been  at  so  very  great  distances  from  the  city  of  Jerusalem 
and  its  splendid  Temple.  Now  while  still  ministering  to  the 
Jews  and  those  near  to  them  it  takes  a  long  step  forward  in 
appealing  to  alien  races.  It  is  no  longer  possible  to  send 
Peter  and  John  or  a  Barnabas  from  Jerusalem  to  visit  the 
new  churches,  when  they  are  organized,  as  was  done  when 
the  churches  in  Samaria  and  Antioch  and  other  places  came 
into  existence. 

Political  and  Religious  State  of  Asia  Minor,  Mace- 
donia and  Greece. — In  order  to  understand  primitive 
Christianity  there  must  be  some  knowledge  of  the  conditions 
which  it  had  to  meet  when  it  began  to  aspire  to  be  the 
first  religious  world  power  (see  *<The  Letters  to  the  Seven 
Churches,"  by  Professor  Ramsay).  It  is  not  possible  to 
treat  adequately  in  this  book — from  its  limited  scope — these 
conditions.  But  something  may  be  said  of  the  state  of 
affairs  in  Asia  Minor,  Macedonia  and  Greece,  which  will 
show  the  difficult  situations  which  Christianity  had  to  meet 

43 


44         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


and  conquer  here  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  (For  the 
conditions  in  Rome,  see  Study  IV.)  For  while  we  have  a 
certain  knowledge  of  these  regions  and  how  the  gospel  came 
to  them,  in  the  Acts,  yet  there  are  other  regions  where  the 
gospel  was  carried  of  which  we  know  little  of  the  how  and 
the  why  of  its  establishment. 

Politically,  Asia  Minor  was  unfavourable  to  the  progress  of 
Christian  missions.  While  under  Roman  rule  it  was  broken 
up  into  numerous  communities  varying  greatly  in  civihzation, 
in  manners,  language  and  religion,  and  ruled  partly  by 
Roman  prefects  and  partly  by  petty  kings  and  potentates. 
Some  of  the  roads  off  from  the  finely  kept  Roman  highways, 
were  scarely  passable  and  what  was  worse  some  parts  of  the 
peninsular,  to  which  the  missionaries  addressed  themselves 
were  overrun  with  bandits.  They  were  as  Paul  says  **  in 
perils  of  robbers."  There  were  some  large  and  wealthy 
cities  like  Ephesus  and  Smyrna,  with  a  population  of  about 
200,000  inhabitants  each,  and  Pergamos,  with  a  population 
of  over  100,000;  while  there  were  many  languages  spoken, 
the  Greek  was  quite  well  understood  by  the  people. 

Religiously,  it  was  given  over  entirely  to  idolatry.  There 
was  a  mixture  of  the  religions  of  the  East  and  West.  The 
one  seemingly  favourable  feature  was  the  presence  of  Jewish 
synagogues  in  the  leading  cities,  but  as  soon  as  Paul's  mis- 
sion to  proclaim  Christ  as  the  Messiah  and  Saviour  to  the 
Gentiles — without  adherence  to  the  levitical  law — became 
known  many  of  these  synagogues  became  active  centres  of 
antagonism  to  the  New  Way. 

In  Macedonia  and  Greece  the  gospel  preached  by  Paul 
came  withm  the  charmed  circle  of  what  was  then  the  highest 
civilization.  It  tried  its  strength  with  the  keenest  philoso- 
phers and  the  most  seductive  fascinations  of  imm.orality 
masquerading  under  the  guise  of  religion  in  the  licentious 
rites  of  the  heathen  temples  and  groves. 

New  Questions  and  Adjustments. — Of  necessity 
many  new  and  perplexing  questions  arose  for  settlement  (see 
Study  VIII,  the  Church  in  Conflict).     The  state  and  society 


The  Church  in  the  Provinces  45 


were  full  of  idolatrous  practices.  To  become  a  Christian 
was  to  be  set  apart  from  one's  fellow  men  in  many  ways. 
Christianity  was  obliged  to  define  its  relations  to  the  state,  to 
Judaism,  to  polytheism,  to  philosophy,  to  society,  to  amuse- 
ments and  to  the  family.  The  bringing  in  of  a  new  national 
god  or  a  new  national  religion  was  ordniarily  a  matter  of  in- 
difference to  the  people  of  the  Roman  Empire,  <*but 
gradually  they  began  to  realize  that  Christianity  meant  a 
social  and  religious  revolution  and  that  it  did  not  mean  to 
take  its  place  alongside  of  the  other  religions,  but  to  destroy 
them."  It  is  hardly  possible  at  this  distance  in  time,  to 
realize  this  revolutionary  character  of  Christianity,  in  its  be- 
ginning. It  not  only  took  the  field  against  the  worship  of 
many  gods  and  the  open  immorahty  which  was  part  and 
parcel  of  polytheism,  but  it  rejected  uncompromis- 
ingly the  worship  of  the  dead  Caesars  and  the  living  Caesar, 
which  was  a  part  of  the  religion  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
The  Christians  refused  to  worship  the  Roman  Emperor  as  a 
god  and  ''nearly  all  the  encounters  between  individual 
Christians  and  the  religious  regulations  of  the  empire 
resolved  themselves  into  a  trial  for  treason."  The  Christians 
believed  and  taught  that,  while  inculcating  obedience  to  all 
lawful  authority,  the  honour  paid  to  a  monarch  was  one  thing 
and  the  worship  paid  to  God  quite  another.  The  effort  of 
the  church  was  to  bring  all  men  together  under  one  Lord, 
who  claimed  their  supreme  allegiance,  above  that  of  the 
state.  No  such  plan  had  ever  before  been  contemplated  by 
any  religion  to  make  itself  universal.  The  disciples  pre- 
sented the  gospel  of  God  the  Father  Almighty,  of  His  Son 
Jesus  Christ  and  the  resurrection,  and  the  ministry  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  as  all  sufficient  for  men  in  all  circumstances  of 
life.  '*  They  believed  that  Christianity  is  salvation  by  faith, 
faith  in  God  through  Jesus  Christ,  His  only  begotten  Son." 
For  them  to  live  was  to  live  in  Christ,  They  attacked  the 
strongholds  of  the  heathen  faith  in  the  big  cities,  like 
Antioch,  Ephesus,  and  Rome  itself,  and  made  their  power 
felt  until,  in  time,  they  carried  all  before  them. 


46         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


THE  LEADERSHIP  OF  THE  HOLY  SPIRIT 

The  Significance  of  this  leadership  of  the  church  into 
new  and  larger  fields  of  work  cannot  be  overestimated 
(Acts  13  :  1-3).  It  is  one  of  the  great  turning  points  in  the 
history  of  Christianity.  New  men  came  to  the  front  and  a 
new  and  vigorous  policy  was  inaugurated. 

The  initiative  in  this  missionary  movement,  which  had 
such  mighty  results,  was  not  with  the  church,  but  the  Holy 
Spirit  (Acts  13  :  2). 

The  Men  and  the  Work. — The  church  in  Antioch  at 
this  time  was  large  and  flourishing.  Ever  since  its  founda- 
tion a  few  years  before  it  had  made  great  progress. 

There  were  five  notable  men,  prophets  and  teachers,  in  the 
church  who  were  especially  desirous  to  do  the  will  of  God 
and  they  fasted  and  prayed  looking  for  divine  guidance. 
The  names  of  the  men  were  Barnabas,  Simeon,  Lucius, 
Hansen  and  Saul.  It  seems  to  be  necessary  when  any  great 
spiritual  work  is  to  be  done  for  humanity  that  there  should 
be  a  devout  waiting  upon  God ;  it  was  so  at  the  day  of 
Pentecost. 

The  call  by  the  Holy  Spirit  came  to  these  men,  **  as  they 
ministered  to  the  Lord  and  fasted,"  to  separate  Barnabas 
and  Saul  for  the  new  missionary  work.  The  part  of  the 
church  was  to  sanction  the  divine  call  by  the  laying  on  of 
hands  and  consecrating  them  to  this  service. 

Antioch  now  becomes  the  great  missionary  centre  of  the 
church's  activity.  The  missionaries  go  forth  from  this  city 
and  to  it  they  return  (Acts  13 :  i,  4 ;  14 :  26 ;  15  :  35,  40, 
41  ;  18:  22,  23).  Paul  takes  that  foremost  place  for  which 
he  has  been  prepared  by  his  conversion  and  the  call  of  the 
Spirit. 

The  time  is  about  47  A.  d.  when  Paul  is  forty-five  years 
old  and  in  the  fifth  year  of  Claudius  Caesar,  Emperor  of 
Rome. 


The  Church  in  the  Provinces  47 


CHURCHES  FOUNDED  BY  PAUL 

Our  attention  is  now  turned  from  the  Jewish  world,  con- 
sidered so  largely  in  the  first  twelve  chapters  of  the  Acts,  to 
the  Gentile  world  and  the  efforts  of  Paul  and  his  fellow 
helpers  to  bring  it  to  Christ.  The  work  is  essentially  that  of 
city  evangelization.  The  record  of  the  three  missionary 
journeys  of  Paul — for  the  purpose  of  preaching  Christ  and  or- 
ganizing churches — is  found  in  Acts  13  :  1-21  :  17. 

The  General  Plan  of  Work  of  Paul  and  his  compan- 
ion, or  company,  was,  as  soon  as  they  entered  a  city,  to  find 
a  lodging  and  then  seek  for  work  at  tent-making.  When 
the  Sabbath  came  they  would  enter  the  Jewish  synagogue 
and  when  the  opportunity  was  given  Paul  would  arise  and 
begin  to  speak  leading  up  through  an  Old  Testament  mes- 
sage to  Jesus  Christ  as  the  promised  Messiah  and  closing 
with  an  exhortation  to  believe  on  Him.  If  he  was  asked  to 
speak  the  next  Sabbath  day — as  he  frequently  was  and  as 
by  his  speech  he  was  recognized  as  a  cultivated  Jewish 
Rabbi — he  would  set  forth  Jesus  Christ  more  plainly  as  the 
Saviour  both  of  Jew  and  Gentile.  This  would  be  generally 
a  signal  for  the  jews  to  contradict  and  oppose  Paul,  but  some 
Jews  would  believe  with  a  number  of  Gentiles.  This  would 
be  the  starting  point  of  the  Christian  church  in  that  city. 
The  Jews  however  who  remained  untouched  by  Paul's  mes- 
sage would  look  upon  him  as  the  destroyer  of  their  religion 
and  would  persecute  him  and  seek  to  have  him  expelled 
from  the  city.  When  the  heathen  thought  their  religion  was 
in  danger,  as  they  frequently  did,  they  would  likewise  per- 
secute Paul.  This  experience  was  often  repeated.  But  al- 
ways there  would  be  some  who  would  be  touched  by  the 
preaching  of  the  Christ. 

The  Message  which  Paul  bore  to  Jew  and  Gentile  was 
the  moving  force  of  his  work.  The  starting  point  was  the 
memorable  day  when  Jesus  Christ  appeared  to  him  on  his 
way  to  Damascus.  Paul  leaves  us  in  no  doubt  as  to  how 
he  regards  Christ.     He  is  to  him  the  Son  of  God  and  the 


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divine  Saviour  of  man  (Ephesians  3  :  9-21 ;  Philippians  2  : 
9-1 1 ;  Romans  9:  5).  In  regard  to  man  he  sets  forth  his 
position  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans ;  all  have  sinned,  Jew 
and  Gentile;  all  need  a  Saviour ;  Christ  died  for  all;  we  are 
all  one  body  in  Him.  There  is  no  doubt  and  no  hesitancy 
in  delivering  the  message.  He  is  a  vv^itness  testifying  to  the 
glory  of  his  divine  Lord.  To  the  rude  mountaineers  of  Asia 
Minor,  to  the  philosophers  at  Athens,  to  the  Roman 
governors  in  Caesarea,  to  the  dwellers  in  Corinth  and  in 
Rome  the  message  is  always  the  same. 

The  First  Missionary  Journey  (Acts  13:  1-14:  28) 
lasted  from  about  47-50  a.  d.  The  number  of  miles  travelled 
was  about  1,400.  The  companions  were  Barnabas  and  John 
Mark.  The  places  visited  were  Salamis  and  Paphos  in 
Cyprus,  Perga  in  Pamphylia,  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Iconium 
in  Lycaonia,  Lystra  and  Derbe  in  Lycaonia.  Upon  the 
return  journey  the  missionaries  did  not  revisit  Cyprus. 
Great  was  the  rejoicing  upon  reaching  Antioch  and  ''they 
rehearsed  all  that  God  had  done  with  them,  and  how  He  had 
opened  the  door  of  faith  unto  the  Gentiles." 

The  Second  Missionary  Journey  (Acts  15 :  36- 
18:  22). — In  time  this  journey  lasted  from  about  51-54 
A.  D.  Paul's  companion  was  Silas  ;  Timotheus  and  Luke  were 
with  him  some  of  the  time.  The  number  of  miles  travelled 
was  about  3,200.  This  second  journey  is  into — after  revisit- 
ing most  of  the  places  of  the  first  journey — entirely  new 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor  and  by  the  direction  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  (Acts  16:  6-1 1)  Paul  enters  Macedonia  and  Achaia. 
This  journey,  in  the  influences  it  set  in  motion  and  in  Paul's 
turning  eastward,  "  is  not  only  the  greatest  which  Paul 
achieved  but  perhaps  the  most  momentous  in  the  history  of 
the  race."  The  itinerary  was  through  Asia  Minor  revisiting 
the  churches  of  the  first  missionary  journey  and  then  his 
company  turned  northward  and  went  throughout  Phrygia 
and  the  region  of  Galatia.  Afterwards  they  came  to 
Mysia.  In  Europe,  Paul  visited  Philippi,  Thessalonica, 
Beerea,  Athens  and   Corinth.      The  return  was  by  way  of 


The  Church  in  the  Provinces  49 


Ephesus,  from  thence  he  sailed  to  Csesarea  and  after  he  had 
gone  up  and  saluted  the  church  he  returned  to  Antioch. 

The  two  epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  were  written  from 
Corinth  during  this  journey. 

The  Third  Missionary  Journey  (Acts  18  :  23-21  :  17). 
— In  time  this  journey  lasted  from  about  54-58  a.  d.  The 
number  of  miles  was  about  3,500.  Starting  from  Antioch 
Paul  "went  over  all  the  country  of  Galatia  and  Phrygia  in 
order  strengthening  all  the  disciples."  He  then  came  to 
Ephesus  where  he  spent  between  two  and  three  years.  This 
great  city — spoken  of  as  the  third  great  centre  of  Christianity 
— midway  between  the  East  and  the  West  and  to  which  all 
the  roads  in  Asia  Minor  led,  was  a  strategic  point  from  which 
Paul  carried  on  an  aggressive  campaign  not  only  in  the  city, 
but  in  all  the  former  places  of  his  visitation.  Such  was  the 
effect  of  Paul's  preaching  upon  the  idolatrous  practices  of 
the  Ephesians  that  they  burned  their  books  of  magical  arts, 
to  the  amount  of  over  ^31,000,  in  a  big  bonfire;  and  a  riot 
was  made  by  craftsmen  who  ministered  to  the  idolatrous 
worship  of  Diana  lest  their  occupation  should  be  taken  away 
from  them.  This  shows  how  Chsistianity  can  affect  a  city. 
After  visiting  a  number  of  cities  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia, 
he  returned  to  Jerusalem  by  way  of  Troas,  Miletus,  Tyre 
and  Caesarea. 

The  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  Galatians  and  Romans 
were  written  during  this  journey. 

In  these  three  and  other  journeys,  depicted  in  the  narrative 
in  the  Acts  and  the  Epistles,  we  can  see  the  churches  in  the 
formative  process.  We  note  their  difficulties  and  vre  sympa- 
thize with  their  joys  and  their  triumphs.  Their  organizer  and 
leader  had  a  method  in  all  that  he  did.  The  churches  brought 
into  being  through  his  instrumentality  were  visited  again 
and  again  and  when  he  could  not  visit  them  he  exhorted 
and  encouraged  them  by  his  letters.  Many  of  the  members 
had  come  out  of  a  gross  heathenism  where  every  passion 
had  had  full  sway,  and  for  them  to  turn  to  a  moral  and 
righteous  life  was  no  easy  thing.     It  is  a  marvel  that  there 


go         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 

were  so  few  abuses  j  in  this  we  can  see  the  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit. 

THE  APOSTOLIC  COUNCIL 

The  Account  of  this  so  called  Apostolic  Council  is  found 
in  Acts  15  :  1-35  and  is  placed  between  the  narratives  of 
the  first  and  second  missionary  journeys  of  Paul  (compare 
Acts  21  :  17-25). 

The  Cause. — Again  the  question  arose  in  the  church, 
*'  Was  it  necessary  for  one  when  he  became  a  Christian  to 
also  become  a  Jew,  be  circumcised  and  obey  the  provisions 
of  the  Levitical  law?"  Paul,  while  a  Jew  himself,  taught 
that  it  was  not  necessary  (Acts  13  :  38,  39;  Romans  3; 
Galatians  2  :  16)  and  that  supreme  faith  in  Christ  was  all 
that  was  required.  But  "certain  men  which  came  down 
from  Judea  taught  the  brethren  and  said,  Except  ye  be  cir- 
cumcised, after  the  manner  of  Moses,  ye  cannot  be  saved." 
When  the  discussion  grew  warm  and  there  seemed  no  pros- 
pect of  settlement,  the  matter  was  referred  to  the  apostles 
and  elders  for  a  council  at  Jerusalem.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
and  others  were  appointed  to  go  to  Jerusalem,  as  delegates, 
by  the  church  in  Antioch. 

The  Decision. — It  is  almost  impossible  now  to  realize 
how  much  hinged  upon  the  decision  which  should  be  made. 
The  Jews  were  separated  from  the  Gentiles  in  many  ways. 
There  was  a  great  social  and  religious  barrier  between  them. 
Ceremonial  observances  did  not  permit  the  Jews  to  eat  with 
the  Gentiles.  It  is  but  fair  to  say  that  many  of  the  Jews 
could  not  see  how  this  barrier  could  be  broken  down.  Like- 
wise the  Gentiles  could  not  see  why,  when  their  salvation  was 
through  faith  in  Christ,  they  should  be  obliged  to  become 
Jews  and  be  obedient  to  the  law.  After  a  full  discussion  of 
the  matter  it  was  decided  in  favour  of  the  Gentiles  and  they 
were  given  their  liberty  in  Christ.  They  were  enjoined, 
however,  to  keep  themselves  from  certain  things  (Acts  15  : 
28,  29)  which  were  the  besetting  temptations  of  those  who 
so  recently  had  come  out  of  heathenism. 


The  Church  in  the  Provinces  51 


This  question  seemingly  so  amicably  settled  at  this  time 
was  destined  to  come  up  again  and  again  and  hamper  Paul 
(Acts  21  :  27,  28;  Galatians  3  :  1-29)  and  others  in  their 
work,  but  nevertheless  it  was  a  great  victory  gained  for  all 
time.  It  gave  a  freedom  and  a  power  to  the  gospel  message 
which  it  could  not  otherwise  have  had.  After  the  taking 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  destruction  of  the  temple  by  the 
Romans  in  70  a.  d.  this  question  assumed  less  and  less  im- 
portance, but  when  the  Emperor  Hadrian  had  rebuilt  Jeru- 
salem and  renamed  it  ^lia  Capitolina  and  forbade  any  Jew 
to  enter  it  (135  a.  d.)  it  ceased  to  have  any  significance. 

THE  WIDENING  CIRCLE   OF  CHURCHES 

The  Diffusion  of  the  Gospel  and  the  establishment  of 
churches  throughout  the  provinces  was  first  from  one  centre 
and  then  from  another.  The  kingdom  of  God  not  only 
came  with  observation,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Pauline  churches, 
but  without  observation.  Communication,  along  the  splendid 
Roman  roads  and  the  ship  routes,  was  easy  to  the  farthest 
confines  of  the  empire  and  men  turning  to  Christ  in  one  city, 
where  they  might  stop  on  a  journey,  carried  the  good  news 
with  them  to  their  homes.  Converted  soldiers,  sailors, 
slaves,  merchants,  landholders  and  men  and  women  in  all 
ranks  of  life,  had  a  hand  in  this  good  work,  and  in  this  way 
many  new  centres  of  Christian  light  and  life  would  be  es- 
tablished, which  in  turn  would  lead  to  others. 

In  this  work  the  apostles,  and  those  near  them,  did  their 
important  first  foundation-laying,  but  the  record  of  their 
subsequent  labours  is  not  so  clear.  We  know,  however,  that 
John  the  beloved  disciple  was  bishop  of  Ephesus  and  died 
there  about  100  a.  d.  The  church  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt, 
by  an  unvarying  ecclesiastical  tradition,  was  organized  by 
Mark,  the  evangelist.  Peter  is  said  to  have  preached  in 
Babylon  and  Rome ;  Andrew  in  Scythia,  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor ;  James  the  elder  in  Jerusalem  and  Judea  ;  James,  the 
less,  in  Palestine  and  Egypt ;  Jude  in  Assyria  and  Persia ; 
Philip  in  Phrygia.    Thomas  is  claimed  by  the  Syrian  Chris- 


52         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


tians  as  the  founder  of  their  church  and  he  perhaps  also 
preached  in  Persia  and  India. 

In  Asia  there  were  many  churches  of  which  we  have  an 
account,  but  no  word  as  to  their  origin,  besides  those  well 
known  to  us  in  the  narrative  in  the  Acts.  In  Palestine, 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor  the  churches  organized  in  the  apostolic 
age  continued  for  a  long  time  to  be  great  centres  for  the 
propagation  of  the  New  Way.  We  know  that  the  gospel  was 
preached  far  to  the  eastward,  for  by  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  we  have  notices  of  Christian  communities  in  Edessa, 
in  Mesopotamia,  in  Persia,  in  Media,  in  Bactria,  in  Parthia, 
in  Armenia  and  in  Arabia. 

In  Europe. — Paul,  in  his  second  missionary  journey, 
crossed  over  to  Europe  and  organized  churches.  Besides 
those  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  there  were  many  Christian 
communities  in  Italy  and  upon  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine, 
in  the  Roman  colonies.  There  were  no  more  important 
churches  in  these  early  times  than  those  of  Gaul  and  Spain. 
It  is  probable  that  Paul  visited  the  churches  in  Spain  after 
his  release  from  his  first  imprisonment.  It  is  in  dispute 
whether  the  church  in  Britain  was  founded  in  apostolic 
times  or  not. 

In  Africa. — We  are  told  how  in  the  Acts  the  gospel  was 
carried  to  Ethiopia  by  the  converted  eunuch,  who  was  bap- 
tized by  Philip.  Alexandria  was  a  great  centre  of  Chris- 
tianity from  which  missionaries  carried  the  gospel  to  all 
parts  of  Egypt.  Many  things  combined  to  give  this  city  the 
headship  of  the  Grecian  world.  Here  was  a  great  Christian 
school  of  thought  and  many  teachers  who  made  it  renowned. 
From  this  city  the  gospel  undoubtedly  was  carried  westward 
to  Cyrene.  The  important  church  in  Carthage,  with  many 
smaller  churches  around  it,  in  proconsular  Africa,  may  have 
had  its  beginning  from  the  church  in  Rome. 

Thus  the  tlien  known  world  was  encircled  with  Christian 
churches. 

The  History  of  the  churches,  after  the  narrative  in  the 
New  Testament  closes,  we  find  in  the  writings  of  the  able 


The  Church  in  the  Provinces  53 


Christian  teachers  who  were  raised  up  to  carry  on  the  good 
work.  By  means  of  these  writings,  through  many  years,  we 
can  witness  the  conflicts  and  triumphs  of  the  churches. 
Each  great  Christian  city  had  its  competent  and  powerful 
defender  of  the  faith  ;  for  when  Christianity  was  claiming  to 
be  the  universal  religion,  and  superior  to  all  others,  its  con- 
tentions by  no  means  went  unchallenged.  Some  of  these 
great  teachers  were  Clement  and  Justin  Martyr  of  Rome, 
Clement  and  Origen  of  Alexandria,  IreuEeus  of  Lyons,  Ter- 
tullian  and  Cyprian  of  Carthage,  and  Eusebius  of  C^esarea. 
The  teaching  of  these  men  was  carried  on,  especially  in  Al- 
exandria, ''  in  the  midst  of  Pagans  and  philosophers,  men 
of  wide  training  and  cultivated  intellect.  They  were  com- 
pelled to  present  Christianity  in  such  a  manner  as  should 
neither  repel  their  opponents,  nor  give  them  an  easy  victory 
over  ignorant  assertions  or  futile  anathemas."  They  suc- 
cessfully showed  that  Christianity  did  not  shun  the  light  of 
reason  and  was  ready  to  meet  all  comers  with  a  culture 
equal  to  their  own. 

We  are  also  connected  with  the  Apostolic  age  by  such 
men  as  Ignatius  who  was  head  of  the  Antioch  church  as 
early  as  about  69  a.  d.,  and  who  was  martyred  in  Rome 
under  the  Emperor  Trajan.  As  he  went  on  his  way  from 
Antioch  to  Rome  he  writes  farewell  letters  rejoicing  in  his 
approaching  death  (by  wild  beasts)  for  Christ.  Again  John 
the  Apostle,  was  head  of  the  church  at  Ephesus  until  about 
100  A,  D.,  when  he  died ;  at  the  same  time,  during  the  last 
five  years  of  John's  headship,  his  pupil  Polycarp  (martyred 
about  155  A.  D.)  was  bishop  of  Smyrna.  Papias  (died  about 
163  A.  D.)  who  was  bishop  of  Hierapolis,  was  also  a  hearer 
of  John,  and  a  companion  of  Polycarp.  Papias  was  an  able 
writer  and  he  gives  testimony  in  regard  to  the  authorship 
and  making  of  the  gospels. 

NUMBER  OF  CONVERTS 

The  Evidence. — There  is  testimony  both  from  the 
Christians  and  those  opposed  to  Christianity  that  it  multi- 


54         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


plied  its  converts  very  rapidly  in  the  first  seventy  years  of  its 
existence.  On  the  day  of  Pentecost  we  are  told  that  three 
thousand  were  converted  and  numbers  of  these  converts  were 
visitors  from  various  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Through- 
out the  Acts  we  are  told  of  the  extraordinary  success  of  the 
gospel  in  many  cities  such  as  Antioch  and  Ephesus.  Christ 
told  His  followers  that  He  came  to  draw  all  men  unto  Him- 
self and  commissioned  them  to  preach  the  gospel  to  all  na- 
tions. 

In  heathen  writers  we  find  the  great  numbers  which  be- 
lieved in  Christ  spoken  of.  Tacitus,  in  describing  the 
Neronian  persecution,  which  lasted  from  64-68  a.  d.,  speaks 
of  the  great  multitude  which  believed  in  Christ  at  that  time 
in  Rome ;  a  number  large  enough  to  call  to  them  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Imperial  authority.  Within  about  twelve  years 
after  the  death  of  John,  at  Ephesus,  Pliny,  the  governor  of 
the  province  of  Bithynia  asks  the  Emperor  Trajan  what  he 
shall  do  about  enforcing  the  law  against  the  Christians.  He 
says,  that  many  of  every  rank  and  also  of  both  sexes  are 
called  in  danger  and  are  likely  to  be  so;  and  not  only 
through  the  cities,  but  even  through  the  villages  and  rural 
districts,  the  contagion  of  that  superstition  has  spread.  Yet 
there  is  little  reason  to  suppose  that  the  Christians  were  more 
numerous  in  Bithynia  than  in  other  provinces  of  Asia  Minor 
at  the  time  when  Pliny  was  governor  and  when  he  wrote  in 
112  A.  D.  Tacitus  and  Pliny  had  no  reason  for  exaggerat- 
ing the  case. 

In  Christian  writers  we  find  the  same  story.  Later  on, 
Justin  Martyr  of  Rome  declares  that  widely  dispersed  as  is 
the  Jewish  race,  yet  there  are  nations  into  which  no  Jew  has 
ever  been ;  whereas  there  is  not  one  single  race  of  men, 
whether  barbarians  or  Greeks,  or  whatever  they  may  be 
called,  among  whom  prayers  and  the  giving  of  thanks  are 
not  offered  through  the  name  of  the  crucified  Jesus.  Clement 
of  Alexandria  says  that  the  gospel  was  diffused  over  the 
whole  world  among  Greeks  and  barbarians  alike,  nation  by 
nation  and  village  by  village.     Still   later,  TertuUian  of 


The  Church  in  the  Provinces  5^ 

Carthage  in  the  famous  passage  in  the  Apologeticus  says, 
*' Their  outcry  is  that  the  state  is  besieged  ;  that  Christians 
are  in  the  fields,  the  fortresses,  the  islands ;  they  lament  as 
a  dire  calamity  that  every  sex,  age,  condition  and  even 
rank,  is  going  over  to  this  profession."  ^ 

QUESTIONS 

The  church  in  the  provinces  ;  what  can  be  said  of  the  condi- 
tions and  problems?  What  was  the  political  and  religious  state 
of  Asia  Minor,  Macedonia  and  Greece  ?  What  can  be  said  of 
the  new  questions  and  adjustments  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the 
leadership  of  the  Holy  Spirit?  Its  significance  ?  The  men  and 
the  work  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the  churches  founded  by  Paul  ? 
The  message  ?  The  first,  second  and  third  missionary  journeys  ? 
What  can  be  said  of  the  Apostolic  Council  ?  The  account  ? 
The  cause  ?  The  decision  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the  widening 
circle  of  the  churches?  The  diffusion  of  the  gospel?  In  Asia? 
In  Europe?  In  Africa?  The  history?  What  can  be  said  of 
the  number  of  converts  ? 


*  For  the  times  at  which — and  the  circumstances  in  which — the 
above  statements  were  made  and  a  fuller  treatment  of  the  whole  mat- 
ter— with  additional  statements — see  Study  X,  section,  Rapid 
Growth. 


Study  IV 
THE  CHURCH  IN  ROME 

THE  CHURCH 

We  now  come  to  the  church  in  the  capital  city  of  the  great 
Roman  Empire. 

When  Organized. — It  is  uncertain  when  and  by  whom 
this  church  was  founded.  It  is  supposed  that  ''  strangers  of 
Rome"  (Acts  2  :  10),  who  were  present  at  the  great  mani- 
festation of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  in 
30  A.  D.,  carried  back  with  them  the  good  news  and  organ- 
ized the  first  Christian  community. 

It  was  certainly  not  founded  by  Peter  or  by  Paul  who,  in 
his  Epistle  to  the  Romans  before  he  visited  the  church, 
speaks  of  its  faith  as  being  well  known  throughout  the  whole 
world  (Romans  i  :  8).  Paul  also  speaks  in  the  same  Epistle 
(Romans  16  :  7)  of  dwellers  in  Rome,  **who  also  were  in 
Christ  before  me."  This  Epistle  was  written  in  58  a.  d., 
from  Corinth,  and  Paul  reached  Rome  in  61  a.  d.  Had 
Peter  founded  the  church  in  Rome  or  been  in  the  city  when 
Paul  wrote  Romans,  or  Luke  wrote  Acts  28  :  14-31,  the  fact 
would  no  doubt  have  been  mentioned. 

Many  scholars,  however,  accept  the  tradition  as  being 
true  to  the  fact,  that  Peter  was  in  Rome  just  before  and 
during  the  Neronian  persecution  (64-68  a.  d.).  It  is  also 
claimed  by  some  that  Peter  was  martyred  in  Rome  about  the 
same  time  as  Paul  during  the  latter  part  of  the  Neronian 
persecution  ;  others  assert  that  Peter  did  not  suffer  martyr- 
dom until  some  time  later.  It  is  also  claimed  that  Peter 
wrote  his  first  Epistle  from  Rome,  using  Babylon  (i  Peter 
5  :  13)  as  the  mystical  name  for  Rome. 

Composition  and  Meeting  Places. — In  the  time  of 
Paul  there  were  about  60,000  Jews  in  Rome.     This  colony 

S6 


The  Church  in  Rome  57 


was  founded  by  the  captive  Jews  whom  the  Roman  general 
Pompey  sent  to  the  Imperial  city  when  he  took  Jerusalem  in 
6^  B.  c.  It  was  doubtless  the  chief  men  of  the  descendants 
of  this  colony  whom  Paul  called  together  when  he  first  came 
to  the  city  (Acts  28  :  17).  There  was  here  ample  material 
upon  which  the  Gospel  could  work. 

The  church  was  composed  of  both  Jews  and  Gentiles,  for 
Paul  in  his  Epistle  addresses  both  classes  (Romans  9  :  24; 
II  :  13;   I  :  16;   I  :  13;    2  :  17;   7:1;   4:1). 

The  church  probably  lacked,  at  this  time,  a  unified  organi- 
zation, although  it  might  have  had  many  members.  Paul  is 
careful  not  to  address  it  as  one  (Romans  i  :  7).  "Chris- 
tianity seems  to  have  appeared  in  the  capital  of  the  world  in 
the  form  of  separate  circles,  so  called  house  churches" 
(Romans  16:5).  Yet  in  their  faith  they  were  one  as  Paul 
says,  ''I  thank  my  God  through  Jesus  Christ  for  you  all" 
(Romans  1:8). 

Paul's  Letter  to  the  Roman  Christians. — When  the 
Great  Apostle  was  in  Ephesus  (Acts  19  :  21)  during  his  third 
missionary  journey  he  declared  his  intention  of  visiting 
Rome.  So  strong  was  this  determination  that  when  he 
arrived  in  Corinth  he  wrote  his  now  famous  Epistle.  Evi- 
dently Paul  had  first-hand  information  of  the  state  of  affairs 
in  the  Imperial  city ;  he  was  doubtless  constantly  meeting 
many  men  who  were  its  citizens.  Besides  he  had  many 
friends  there  (Romans  16).  In  this  letter  we  find  no  as- 
sumption of  authority.  He  deems  it  no  more  than  right 
that  he  should  address  them  on  the  subject  of  his  visit 
and  state  why  and  how  he  was  coming  (Romans  i  :  1-13 ; 
15  :  15-32).  There  are  many  ways  in  which  he  might  have 
addressed  the  Christians  in  Rome  but  he  chose  to  write  what 
he  had  to  say  under  two  heads  : 

I.  Doctrinal  (Romans  i-ii).  He  here  puts  in  shape 
the  result  of  his  thinking  upon  and  preaching  Christ  for 
over  twenty  years,  since  his  conversion,  and  it  is  all  summed 
up  in  the  great  theme.  Justification  through  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ  for  the  Jew  and  the  Gentile. 


58         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


2.  Practical  (Romans  12:  i— 15  :  14).  The  Christian's 
duty  to  the  church  and  his  conduct  outside  the  church 
(ch.  12),  the  Christian's  duty  to  the  state  and  society 
(ch.  13),  and  the  Christian's  toleration  and  supreme  trust 
in  Christ  (chs.  14:  1-15  :  14). 

In  this  letter  we  get  an  insight  into  the  earnestness  and 
zeal  of  the  Roman  Christians,  for  a  company  of  people  is  as 
marked  by  the  character  of  the  letters  which  it  receives  as  by 
one  who  writes  them.  In  the  practical  part  we  also  notice 
the  care  which  they  are  exhorted  to  take  of  their  moral  wel- 
fare and  not  to  make  themselves  obnoxious  to  the  Roman 
government. 

Luke  tells  us,  that  Paul  dwelt,  guarded  by  a  soldier,  for 
two  years  (61-63  ^'  ^0  ^^  ^is  own  hired  house  in  Rome 
and  received  all  that  came  in  unto  him  (Acts  28 :  16,  30). 
Of  the  result  of  that  two  years*  labour,  Paul  declares  that 
it  was  to  the  furtherance  of  the  gospel  (Philippians  i :  1 2-20) 
and  that  there  were  many  converts  in  the  palace  (Philip- 
pians 4:22)  and  other  places.  It  is  evident  that  Chris- 
tianity made  great  progress  in  the  city  at  this  time.  Five 
Epistles  were  written  by  Paul  in  Rome :  Colossians,  Phile- 
mon, Ephesians,  Phihppians  and  Second  Timothy. 

Position  and  Influence. — It  is  not  strange  that  a 
church  in  any  big  city  should  have  a  certain  power  and 
authority  from  its  situation,  especially  so  when  it  is  itself 
strong. 

When  then  the  church  in  the  capital  city  of  the  Roman 
Empire  began  to  grow  rapidly  in  membership  it  easily  took 
a  leading  place  in  the  Christian  councils.  But  it  should  be 
remembered  also  that  this  foremost  position  was  not  one  ex- 
clusively gained  through  a  large  membership  or  from  a 
desire  for  ecclesiastical  control  or  lordship  over  the  churches, 
but  because  of  the  purity  of  its  faith,  the  zeal  in  bringing 
men  and  women  to  Christ  and  the  willingness  to  suffer  in 
His  cause,  even  to  the  death.  *^It  is  astonishing  what 
Christianity,  in  a  relatively  short  time,  made  out  of  motley 
and   confused  heathen  groups;    earnest  men  working  out 


The  Church  in  Rome  59 


their  salvation  with  fear  and  trembhng,  saints  fully  aware  of 
the  moral  tasks  of  their  consecration."  ^ 

THE  CITY  AND  THE  EMPIRE 

In  order  to  fully  appreciate  the  difficult  task  of  the  church, 
in  these  times,  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  of  the  mate- 
rial with  which  it  worked  and  its  environment. 

The  City  of  Rome  was  the  fourth  centre  in  the  prog- 
ress of  Christianity  eastward,  after  Jerusalem,  Antioch  and 
Ephesus,  but  the  power  which  dominated  the  world  had  its 
seat  here.  It  is  not  strange  that  a  man  like  Paul  should 
desire  to  see  Rome  and  turn  that  power  to  Christ.  He 
believed  and  taught  that  Christ  was  supreme  over  all  and 
that  all  men  should  believe  in  and  obey  Him.  He  had  a 
large  plan,  no  less  than  the  subjugation  of  the  whole  Roman 
world  to  his  Lord. 

The  population,  in  the  time  of  Paul,  by  a  conservative 
estimate  was  reckoned  at  1,500,000.  Many  rate  it  at  a 
much  higher  figure;  one-half  of  this  number  were  slaves 
and  a  good  share  of  the  remainder  were  paupers  dependent 
upon  the  largess  of  the  state;  there- was  no  middle  class; 
the  nobility  and  the  wealthy  class  consisted  of  those  of  whose 
extravagant  luxury  we  hear  so  much.  The  city  drew  all 
sorts  of  people  to  it  and  of  all  nationalities.  "The  rhet- 
orician from  Asia,  the  Greek  philosopher,  the  Chaldean 
astrologer,  the  Egyptian  magician,  the  begging  priest  of  Isis 
all  jostled  each  other  here  in  the  struggle  for  existence." 

The  outward  appearance.  It  was  impressive  by  reason 
of  its  great  extent  and  not  by  either  a  distinctive  beauty  or 
grandeur.  The  streets  were  many  of  them  narrow,  dirty 
and  winding  and  flanked  by  tall,  densely  crowded  lodging 
houses.  The  movement  begun  by  Augustus  to  make  Rome 
the  worthy  capital  of  the  empire  led  to  the  building  of 
many  palatial  mansions,  ornate  temples  and  large  basilicas 
for  the  transaction  of  business. 

1  For  forms  and  order  of  worship  and  officers,  see  Study  VL 


6o         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


The  Empire. — Augustus — who  became  sole  ruler  in 
31  B.  c.  and  reigned  until  14  b.  c. — left  the  empire  bounded 
by  ''the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  the  Euphrates,  the  African 
desert,  the  Atlantic  and  the  North  Sea.  These  limits  were 
not  seriously  exceeded  until  Trajan's  time  except  the  con- 
quest of  Britain  was  begun  by  Claudius  in  43  a.  d.  and  was 
finished,  as  far  as  it  was  ever  finished,  by  the  recall  of  Agri- 
cola  in  85  A.  D." 

The  population  was  about  **  120,000,000,  of  w-hich  60,- 
000,000  were  slaves,  40,000,000  were  tributaries  and  freed- 
men  and  only  about  20,000,000  were  citizens,"  of  which 
number  it  is  asserted  by  some  authorities  that  only  about 
4,000,000  were  citizens  in  full. 

There  was  a  vast  variety  of  political  conditions.  Some 
cities  were  free  and  others  had  no  voice  in  their  own  taxation. 
Some  provinces  were  governed  by  senatorial  proconsuls  and 
propraetors  and  other  regions  had  client  kings.  Broadly 
speaking,  the  eastern  half  was  Greek,  the  western  Latin. 
Greek  was  in  most  places  the  language  of  culture  and  com- 
merce, although  many  languages  and  dialects  were  spoken. 
The  Empire  was  never  a  solid  nation.  Rome  was  the 
connecting  link  between  the  old  civilization  and  the  new, 
between  the  heathen  city  states  of  the  ancient  world  and  the 
Christian  nations  of  the  modern. 

Helps  in  the  Progress  of  the  Church. — The  empire — 
without  intending  it — contributed  largely  to  the  success  of 
the  church  through  external  and  internal  conditions  of  which 
great  advantage  was  taken  by  its  early  promoters. 

External  conditions  :  i.  The  comparative  realization  of  a 
world  state  and  a  political  unity  of  many  nations  under  one 
government. 

2,  A  general  peace  and  a  respect  for  law  and  order. 

3.  The  military  roads  extending  to  the  farthest  confines 
of  the  Empire,  making  travel  easy. 

4.  International  traffic. 

5,  The  general  use  of  the  Greek  language,  which  had 


The  Church  in  Rome  6l 


been  brought  about  by  the  Hellenizing  of  the  East  and 
partly  of  the  West,  since  the  conquests  of  Alexander. 

6.  '<The  decomposition  of  ancient  society  into  a  de- 
mocracy. ' ' 

This  state  of  affairs  made  a  highway  for  Christianity 
which  aimed  to  be  the  world-religion  and  to  embrace  all 
nations,  peoples  and  languages  in  its  provisions. 

Internal  conditions : 

1.  The  old  religions  and  philosophies  were  wearing  out. 
When  Christianity  attacked  the  polytheistic  state  religion  it 
found  it  already  seriously  weakened. 

2.  There  was  a  reawakening  of  the  religious  sense.  Men 
were  longing  for  something  better  in  religion  and  some  one 
who  would  guide  them  to  the  understanding  of  God  and  a 
right  worship  of  Him. 

3.  Stoicism  on  which  many  leaned  for  support  amid  the 
terrors  and  temptations  of  that  awful  epoch  utterly  failed  to 
provide  a  remedy  against  the  universal  degradation.  It 
aimed  at  cherishing  an  insensibility  which'  gave  no  real  com- 
fort, and  for  which  it  offered  no  adequate  motive. 

Obstacles  in  the  "Way  of  the  Progress  of  the 
Church — I.  Political.  As  soon  as  the  true  aim  of  the 
new  religion  was  understood  all  the  power  of  the  empire  was 
exerted  to  crush  it. 

2.  Religious.  Christianity  did  not  desire  to  become  one 
of  the  religions  and  take  its  place  in  the  Roman  pantheon 
of  gods  and  goddesses,  with  the  other  allowed  religions,  but 
it  did  propose  to  be  the  religion  for  the  saving  of  all  men ; 
hence  it  incurred  a  bitter  enmity  and  persecution. 

3.  Moral.  Christianity  demanded  of  its  followers  moral 
purity  in  a  world  which  had  so  degraded  and  debased  the 
moral  sense  that  it  seemed  almost  lost.  Seneca,  the  great 
Roman  philosopher  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Nero,  gives  a 
long  list  of  revolting  forms  of  iniquity  which  were  openly 
practiced.  He  says,  *'  All  things  are  full  of  crimes  and  vices. 
There  is  a  struggle  to  see  who  will  excel  in  iniquity.     In- 


62         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


iquity  has  so  free  a  course  in  public,  it  so  dominates  in  all 
hearts,  that  innocence  is  not  only  rare,  it  does  not  exist  at 
all."  This  description,  and  that  of  other  writers,  of  the 
state  of  affairs  in  Rome  confirms  what  Paul  said  in  regard 
to  the  morals  of  the  city  in  Romans  i  :  21-32.  Immorality 
was  allowed  as  a  part  of  the  worship  in  certain  temples  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  great  Plato  had  taught  the 
Greeks  in  his  contemplated  ^*  Ideal  Republic  "  that  a  com- 
munity of  wives  was  one  of  the  things  to  be  desired,  so 
blinded  was  he  to  the  sacredness  of  the  marriage  tie. 
Socrates  himself  was  so  dull  to  a  great  moral  truth  that  we 
find  him  advising  an  evil  woman,  Theodota,  how  she  might 
best  retain  her  friends.  The  moral  abuses  that  arose  from 
the  holding  of  millions  of  slaves  are  too  bad  to  be  men- 
tioned. The  right  of  parents  to  destroy  their  young  children, 
if  they  so  chose,  was  conceded;  both  Aristotle  and  Plato 
had  approved  this  right. 

4.  Inhuman  amusements.  The  sufferings  and  death 
agonies  of  men  and  women  were  made  subjects  of  sport. 
The  Roman  populace  demanded  realism  when  it  was  to  be 
amused  and  what  was  done  in  the  capital  city  was  done  in 
Ephesus,  Antioch  and  other  cities  of  the  empire.  There  was 
a  barbarous  cruelty  in  the  spectacles  of  the  day.  Mercy, 
pity  and  purity  had  fled  in  shame  from  men's  hearts.  "  Art 
must  know  nothing  of  morality  and  must  accept  and  rejoice 
in  a  so-called  healthy  animalism.  Comedy  must  be  actual 
shame,  and  tragedy  actual  bloodshed.  When  the  play  of 
Afranius,  called  the  '  Conflagration,'  was  put  upon  the  stage 
a  house  must  be  really  burned  and  its  furniture  plundered. 
In  the  mime  called  ^Laureolus,'  an  actor  must  be  really 
crucified  and  mangled  by  a  bear.  Prometheus  must  be 
really  chained  to  his  rock,  and  Dirce  in  very  fact  be  tossed 
and  gored  by  a  wild  bull ;  and  Icarus  must  really  fly  though 
he  fall  and  be  dashed  to  death ;  and  Hercules  must  ascend  the 
funeral  pyre  and  there  veritably  be  burned  alive.  It  was  the 
ultimate  romance  of  a  brutalized  and  degraded  people. 
And  worse  things  than  these ;  things  indescribable  and  unut- 


The  Church  in  Rome  63 

eerable  were  done.  Infamous  mythologies  were  enacted  in 
which  women  were  made  to  play  their  part  in  torments  of 
shamefulness  more  intolerable  than  death.  Christian  women, 
modest  maidens,  holy  matrons  must  be  the  Danaids,  or  the 
Prosperine,  or  worse  and  play  their  parts  as  priestesses  of 
Saturn  and  Ceres  and  in  blood  stained  dramas  of  the  dead. 
A  Christian  boy  must  be  the  Icarus,  a  Christian  man  the 
Scsevola  or  the  Hercules,  or  the  Orpheus  of  the  amphitheatre. 
No  wonder  that  Nero  became  to  Christian  imagination  the 
very  incarnation  of  evil ;  the  Anti-Christ ;  the  Wild  Beast 
from  the  abyss  ;  the  great  red  dragon  with  a  diadem  and  a 
name  of  blasphemy  upon  his  brow.  But  Nero  was  not  the 
only  persecuting  emperor." 

It  is  one  of  the  marvellous  things  that  in  the  midst  of  all 
these  obstacles  the  Christians  kept  their  faith  and  grew  in 
numbers,  in  power  and  in  influence. 

THE  FIRST  GREAT  ROMAN  PERSECUTION 

Any  thought  that  Paul  or  his  co-labourers  might  have  had 
that  Christianity  would  be  able  to  come  peaceably  into  its 
inheritance  in  the  empire  was  rudely  dissipated  by  the  per- 
secution which  broke  out  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Nero. 
Up  to  this  time  the  Christians  had  been  protected  and 
shielded  by  the  Roman  magistrates ;  Paul  had  appealed  to 
them  when  in  difficulty  and  his  appeal  had  been  heard. 
From  this  time  on,  however,  for  many  scores  of  years,  the 
power  of  empire  was  to  be  exerted  against  the  members  of 
the  church  ;  they  were  to  be  brought  before  Roman  judges 
and  condemned,  for  the  faith  they  professed,  to  torture  and 
cruel  death. 

The  Immediate  Cause  of  the  breaking  out  of  this 
persecution  and  era  of  martyrdom,  was  the  burning  of  Rome. 
On  the  19th  of  June  64  a.  d.  in  the  tenth  year  of  the  reign  of 
Nero  a  fire  broke  out  the  city  in  certain  shops  which  were 
filled  with  inflammable  materials.  It  continued  to  rage 
through  the  better  and  the  poorer  quarters  of  the  city, 
destroying  the  palaces  and  temples  as  well  as  the  tenements 


64         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


alike,  for  six  days  and  seven  nights.  Then  its  course  was 
checked,  but  it  broke  out  a  second  time  and  continued  to 
rage  for  three  days  more  until  ten,  out  of  fourteen  districts 
were  left  in  ruins.  The  calamity  was  a  great  one  and 
deeply  bemoaned  by  the  people.  The  disaster,  in  the 
destruction  of  historical  buildings,  works  of  art,  and  priceless 
records,  was  irreparable. 

The  Reason  Given  for  the  persecution  is  that  Nero — 
for  the  sake  of  diverting  suspicion  from  himself — charged 
the  Christians  with  the  crime  of  burning  the  city,  but  why 
he  should  have  singled  them  out  remains  a  mystery  for  they 
were  the  most  harmless  of  all  his  subjects.  Some  have  con- 
jectured that  it  was  through  the  influence  of  Poppaea,  the 
harlot  empress,  who  was  a  Jewess ;  others  have  declared  that 
it  was  because  the  followers  of  Christ  rejected  the  pagan 
worship  and  made  themselves  obnoxious  to  the  worshippers 
of  the  gods.  Certainly  some  Roman  writers  speak  of 
Christianity,  looking  at  it  from  their  point  of  view,  as  a 
*' pestilential  heresy."  The  historian  Tacitus  writes  of  it 
with  lordly  disdain  j  and  others  looked  upon  its  followers  as 
guilty  of  atheism  because  they  rejected  the  polytheism  of  the 
times.  The  Jews  likewise  in  this  trying  period  had  no  good 
words  for  the  men  who  invited  all  to  join  in  the  worship  of 
Christ,  without  first  following  in  the  way  of  the  law. 

Nero  himself  was  suspected  of  setting  the  fire  by  his  con- 
temporaries and  has  been  accused  of  it  by  many  historians 
of  his  country.  It  is  certain  that  for  years  his  head  was  full 
of  the  burning  of  cities  and  he  is  said  to  have  declared  that 
Priam  was  fortunate  in  having  seen  the  destruction  of  Troy. 
When  some  one  quoted  to  him  the  line  of  Euripides,  '^  When 
I  am  dead,  sink  the  whole  earth  in  flames  !  "  he  is  said  to 
have  replied,  ^'  Nay,  but  while  I  live  !  "  Certainly  a  man 
who  deliberately  planned  the  death  of  his  mother,  and  ex- 
ecuted that  plan  and  killed  his  wife  with  a  kick,  would  not 
hesitate  very  seriously  at  any  crime. 

The  Sufferings  of  the  Christians. — The  numbers  of 
the  Christians  in  the  city  at  this  time  must  have  been  con- 


The  Church  in  Rome  65 

siderable  even  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  emperor  and 
the  multitude.  Tacitus  says  that  those  who  confessed  (that 
they  were  Christians)  were  first  seized  and  then  on  their 
evidence  ''a  huge  multitude"  were  convicted.  It  is  the 
phrase  ''huge  multitude"  which  arrests  attention  at  once, 
but  Tacitus  is  a  careful  historian  and  in  spite  of  all  attempts 
to  minimize  its  force  by  those  who  declare  the  Christians 
could  have  been  but  few  at  this  time,  it  undoubtedly  has  a 
large  basis  of  fact.  Paul  had  come  to  Rome  three  years  be- 
fore and  had  dwelt  there  for  two  years.  When  it  is  recalled 
what  he  had  done  in  Ephesus — and  in  many  other  cities — 
in  converting  so  many  that  the  whole  city  was  stirred  about 
the  gospel  which  he  preached  it  is  not  strange  that,  though 
a  prisoner,  he  made  his  influence  felt  throughout  the  city  in 
converting  great  numbers  to  Christ.  Then,  too,  Paul  shows 
by  his  letter  to  the  Romans  that  there  were  many  Christians 
in  the  city  before  he  came,  so  that  their  "  faith  is  spoken  of 
throughout  the  whole  world  "  (Romans  1:8). 

The  torturing  of  the  Christians.  Again  we  rely  upon 
Tacitus  who  pictures  some  terrible  scenes  and  shows  the  cru- 
elty of  Nero  and  the  Roman  mob.  He  says,  "  And  various 
forms  of  mockery  were  added  to  enhance  their  dying  agonies. 
Covered  with  the  skins  of  wild  beasts  they  were  doomed  to 
die  by  the  mangling  of  dogs,  or  by  being  nailed  to  crosses ; 
or  to  be  set  on  fire  and  burned  after  twilight  by  way  of 
nightly  illumination.  Nero  off'ered  his  own  gardens  for 
this  show,  and  gave  a  chariot  race  mingling  with  the  mob 
in  the  dress  of  a  charioteer,  or  actually  driving  about  among 
them."  Dr.  Farrar  says,  '^  Imagine  that  awful  scene  once 
witnessed  by  the  silent  obelisk  in  the  square  before  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome  !  Imagine  it  that  we  may  realize  how  vast 
is  the  change  which  Christianity  has  wrought  in  the  feelings 
of  mankind.  There  where  the  vast  dome  now  rises  was 
once  the  gardens  of  Nero.  They  were  thronged  with  gay 
crowds  among  whom  the  emperor  moved  in  his  frivolous 
degradation — and  on  every  side  men  were  dying  slowiy  on 
their  cross  of  shame.     Along  the  paths  of  those  gardens  on 


66         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


the  autumn  nights  were  ghastly  torches,  blackening  the 
ground  beneath  them  with  streams  of  sulphurous  pitch,  and 
each  of  those  living  torches  was  a  martyr  in  his  shirt  of  fire. 
And  in  the  amphitheatre  hard  by  in  sight  of  twenty  thousand 
spectators  famished  dogs  were  tearing  to  pieces  some  of  the 
best  and  the  purest  of  men  and  women,  hideously  disguised 
in  the  skins  of  bears  and  wolves.  Thus  did  Nero  baptize 
in  the  blood  of  the  martyrs  the  city  which  was  to  be  for  ages 
the  capital  of  the  world." 

The  Martyrdom  of  Paul. — It  was  some  time  before 
this  persecution  was  extended  to  the  provinces,  and  Paul's 
enemies  saw  their  opportunity  to  accuse  him  to  the  imperial 
court,  where  under  the  circumstances  they  would  find  a 
ready  hearing.  Paul  was  probably  arrested  at  Nicopolis 
where  he  intended  to  winter  (Titus  3:12)  and  hurried 
off  to  Rome.  He  endured  no  light  imprisonment.  On- 
esiphorus  had  difficulty  in  finding  him  (2  Timothy  i  :  16,  17) 
and  he  was  closely  confined  in  a  common  criminal  dungeon 
(2  Timothy  2:9).  From  this  dungeon  he  wrote  the  sec- 
ond epistle  to  Timothy  and  from  thence  he  went  to  his 
death. 

Some  Results. — i.  Gains.  In  spite  of  the  fearful  nature 
of  the  persecution  and  the  perilous  situation  in  which  the 
church  found  itself,  it  made  increasing  gains.  Many  unbe- 
lievers who  witnessed  the  tortures  of  the  condemned  Chris- 
tians marvelled  at  their  faith  and  constancy  and  turned  to 
Christ. 

2.  Harmony  between  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians. 
The  Neronian  persecution  also  contributed  to  a  union  of 
Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians.  Amid  common  suffering, 
for  the  cause  of  Christ,  mutual  sympathy  increased.  The 
consolidation  of  the  two  again  was  greatly  promoted  by  the 
Jewish  insurrection  against  the  Romans  which  resulted  in 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem  and  the  destruction  of  the  temple 
in  70  A.  D.  By  these  great  events  **  one  main  bond  between 
the  Christian  Jew  and  Judaism  was  broken"  and  he  was 
led,  since  the  national  celebrations  at  Jerusalem  had  become 


The  Church  in  Rome  67 

impracticable,  to  turn  more  fully  to  Christ,  and  thus  the 
::hurch  was  enabled  to  take  another  forward  step, 

QUESTIONS 

What  can  be  said  of  the  church  in  Rome  ?  When  organized  ? 
Composition  and  meeting  places?  Paul's  letter  to  the  Roman 
Christians  ?  Position  and  influence  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the 
city  and  the  empire  ?  The  city  of  Rome  ?  The  empire  ?  Helps 
in  the  progress  of  the  church  ?  What  were  the  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  the  church  ?  Political  ?  Religious  ?  Moral  and  inhu- 
man amusements  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the  first  great  Roman 
persecudon  ?  The  immediate  cause  ?  The  reason  given  ?  The 
numbers  and  sufferings  of  the  Christians  ?  The  martyrdom  of 
Paul  ?    Some  results  ? 


Study  V 
THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  CATACOMBS 

THE  CATACOMBS  OF  ROME 

The  Records. — In  order  to  know  what  and  how  the 
church  believed  and  what  were  its  customs,  in  the  early 
days  of  its  existence,  it  is  necessary  to  search  every  possible 
place  where  information  bearing  upon  these  matters  may  be 
obtained.  Pagan  and  Christian  writings  alike  are  carefully 
examined  and  probed,  and  statement  compared  with  state- 
ment, that  we  may  get  at  the  truth. 

The  inquiry  for  the  exact  facts  leads  also  to  the  pains- 
taking investigation  of  the  records  cut  in  stone  and  scratched 
and  painted  upon  plaster  in  the  burial  places  of  the  dead; 
here  as  nowhere  else  men  have  plainly  expressed  their  re- 
ligious hopes  and  beliefs. 

In  the  Catacombs  of  Rome,  where  millions  of  Christians 
caused  the  expression  of  their  faith  and  its  emblems  to  be 
inscribed  we  find  a  vast  mass  of  evidence  respecting  the 
early  Christian  faith  which  shows  how  thoroughly  it  met  the 
deepest  cravings  of  men  for  salvation  from  sin  and  com- 
munion with  God.  This  evidence  has  been  called  '<  A 
Neglected  Factor  in  the  History  of  the  Church"  from  the 
fact  that  it  has  not  received  the  attention  it  deserved. 

LOCATION  AND  MOTIVE 

Location. — Around  and  near  the  city  of  Rome  are  a 
vast  number  of  underground  passages,  corridors  and  chap- 
els which  the  Christians  of  the  first  four  centuries  made  and 
used  for  burying  their  dead  and  for  worship. 
^  These  excavations,  dating  from  the  earliest  Christian 
times,  contain  inscriptions,  paintings,  frescoes  and  sculptured 

6^ 


The  Church  in  the  Catacombs  69 


sarcophagi  which  are  of  great  interest  and  value.  By  means 
of  these  we  can  look  directly  into  the  life  of  those  who  lived 
near  Christ,  and  see  how  they  regarded  those  things  which 
we  hold  as  the  essentials  of  our  faith. 

*' These  Christian  cemeteries  are  situated  chiefly  near  the 
great  roads  leading  from  the  city,  and  for  the  most  part 
within  a  circle  of  three  miles  from  the  walls.  From  this 
circumstance  they  have  been  compared  to  the  encampment 
of  a  Christian  host  besieging  Pagan  Rome  and  driving  in- 
ward its  mines  and  trenches  with  an  assurance  of  final 
victory. ' ' 

Motive. — The  Catacombs  arose  out  of  a  desire  on  the 
part  of  the  early  Christians  to  be  buried  as  their  Lord.  The 
Romans,  believing  in  many  gods,  cremated  their  dead,  placed 
the  ashes  in  funeral  urns,  and  arranged  them  in  orderly 
rows,  in  buildings  above  ground.  The  great  Appian  Road 
was  lined  on  either  side  with  these  structures — marble  palaces 
in  miniature. 

Jesus,  at  His  death.  His  body  being  wrapped  in  grave 
clothes,  was  placed  in  a  rock-hewn  sepulchre  near  Jerusalem. 
There  were  no  rocky  hills  about  Rome,  in  whose  sides  the 
Christians  could  excavate  their  graves,  hence  they  must 
needs  go  below  the  surface  until  they  came  to  the  rock. 
This  rock,  a  soft,  volcanic  tufa,  readily  lent  itself  to  their 
purpose.  The  burial  places  so  made  they  called  **  Cata- 
combs "  (hollow  places). 

CONSTRUCTION 

The  Mode  of  construction  was  as  follows :  a  piece  of 
ground  having  been  selected,  the  workmen  dug  through  the 
soil,  sinking  a  shaft  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  until 
they  were  well  into  the  rock  at  a  distance  of  about  fifty  feet 
from  the  surface.  Steps  were  made  as  they  went  down,  in 
order  that  the  descent  might  be  easy.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
shaft  a  tunnel  or  corridor  was  begun,  say  two  and  a  half  to 
five  feet  wide,  and  ten  to  twelve  feet  high,  extending  200 


yo         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


feet  (or  to  the  limit  of  the  holding)  turning  at  right  angles 
200  feet  again  and  again,  and  so  back  to  the  starting  point. 

Lateral  passages  were  then  made  from  corridor  to  corridor ; 
chapels,  some  of  considerable  size,  were  hollowed  out  from 
the  sides  of  the  passageways.  The  bodies  of  the  dead, 
wrapped  as  Christ's  body,  were  placed  in  graves  made  in  the 
side  walls  of  the  corridors.  After  the  bodies  were  placed  in 
their  rocky  niches,  they  were  sealed  by  suitably  inscribed 
slabs  of  marble  or  terra  cotta.  The  graves  were  made  one 
above  another  with  only  a  thin  layer  of  rock  between  them. 
Usually  five  graves  were  made  one  above  the  other  on  either 
side  of  the  corridor.  When  this  story  of  the  Catacomb  was 
filled,  the  workmen  (called  Fossors)  would  begin  a  new  one 
beneath  it.  In  some  of  these  subterranean  cities  of  the  dead 
there  are  five  stories,  one  below  the  other. 

Sanctioned  by  Law. — The  Catacombs  were  made  un- 
der the  sanction  of  Roman  law ;  the  Christians  organizing 
for  this  purpose  under  the  name  of  Burial  Clubs.  There  was 
no  attempt  to  conceal  the  entrances ;  many  of  them  in  fact 
opened  from  well-travelled  roads.  The  conclusion  is  irresist- 
ible that  they  were  laid  out  by  competent  civil  engineers ; 
ample  provision  was  made  for  ventilation ;  every  sanitary 
precaution  was  taken  ;  they  were  well  lighted.  The  chapels 
were  plastered  or  lined  with  marble.  Many  of  the  corridors 
were  also  plastered  and  decorated  with  ornamental  and 
Christian  symbols. 

Extent. — De  Rossi,  one  of  the  best  authorities  on  this 
subject,  estimates  that  there  are  over  600  miles  of  passages. 
We  get  an  idea  of  their  extent  when  we  consider  that  they, 
if  placed  in  a  continuous  line,  would  make  an  underground 
tunnel  from  Chicago  to  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  Some  conception 
of  the  great  sum  of  money  spent  in  their  construction  is 
gained  from  this  illustration,  for  such  a  tunnel  would  be 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  underground.  From  four 
to  eight  millions  of  the  bodies  of  Christians  were  here 
buried. 

Time. — They  were  begun  about  the  middle  of  the  first 


The  Church  in  the  Catacombs  71 

century,  and  were  in  actual  use  up  to  410  a.  d.,  when  Alaric 
sacked  the  Imperial  city.  Five  times  during  the  fifth  and  as 
many  times  during  the  sixth  century,  Rome  was  pillaged. 
After  the  vandal  hosts  had  exhausted  the  treasuries  of  the 
city,  they  entered  the  Catacombs  and  rifled  the  sepulchres 
of  the  dead.  If  the  matter  had  ended  there  it  had  been 
well ;  but  now  the  church  of  Rome  took  a  hand  and  re- 
moved tons  of  bones  to  the  churches  above  ground.  Many 
of  the  chapels  were  stripped  of  their  marble  linings  which 
were  used  with  the  slabs  from  the  graves  for  church  pave- 
ments. Plundered  by  friend  and  foe,  these  ancient  burial 
places  were  neglected  and  by  the  middle  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury almost  forgotten. 

So  the  ages  passed  until  1578,  when  some  working  men, 
digging  for  Pozzolana  near  the  Salarian  Road,  broke  by 
accident  into  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Priscilla.  The  discovery 
of  the  graves,  the  chapels,  the  paintings  which  had  in  some 
way  escaped  mutilation,  produced  a  profound  impression 
upon  the  Christian  world.  Since  then  these  cemeteries  have 
been  carefully  preserved.  It  is  surprising  how  much  re- 
mains. In  the  persecutions  which  arose  from  time  to  time 
these  places  were  used  as  harbours  of  refuge  for  the  fleeing 
Christians ;  the  passages  were  blocked  up  and  new  passages 
opened  to  prevent  pursuit  and  afford  means  of  escape, 

GROUPS 

Over    Forty-two   Groups  of    Catacombs   are   now 

known  and  named.  Each  district  of  the  city  had  its  separate 
burial  place.  It  would  be  interesting  to  describe  the  differ- 
ent groups  of  Catacombs,  for  each  one  has  its  story,  but  our 
space  permits  us  to  glance  at  but  a  few. 

St.  Calixtus  is  situated  on  the  Appian  Road  near  the 
second  milestone.  It  contains  some  of  the  finest  frescoes, 
paintings  and  earliest  inscriptions.  This  is  the  Catacomb 
which  visitors  are  usually  shown,  yet  they  see  only  that  part 
which  has  been  stripped  of  all  its  beauty  and  where  there  are 
only  blackened  walls.     They  come  away  disappointed  and 


72         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


with  a  totally  erroneous  impression  of  these  underground 
cemeteries.  To  see  the  best  parts  of  this  as  of  all  the  other 
Catacombs,  one  must  have  special  permission  and  a  guide. 

Flavia  Domatilla. — Near  by  on  the  Ardeatina  Road  is 
the  magnificent  Catacomb  of  Flavia  Domatilla,  She  and 
her  husband,  T,  Flavins  Clemens,  were  Christians.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  martyred  for  his  faith  and  she  was  ban- 
ished. They  were  closely  related  to  the  Emperor  Domitian. 
*' Their  sons,  the  presumptive  heirs  to  the  throne,  were 
brought  up  by  a  Christian  mother."  Here  were  placed  the 
bodies  of  Flavia  Domatilla,  after  her  death,  and  her  cham- 
berlains Nereus  and  Achilles,  who  were  martyred  for  their 
faith.  The  entrance  is  of  fine  brick  work  with  a  cornice  of 
terra  cotta.  The  staircase  descends  to  the  second  level  and 
opens  upon  one  of  the  widest  corridors  known  in  all  the 
Catacombs.  A  short  distance  down  the  passage  there  is  a 
chamber  or  antechamber  which  opens  into  a  large  chapel. 
The  walls  are  covered  with  the  finest  stucco  and  decorated 
with  ornamental  devices. 

Upon  the  ceiling  are  depicted  scenes  from  the  Bible  in  the 
best  classical  style.  It  is  a  royal  tomb  of  the  first  century 
and  shows  how  early  Christianity  won  its  way  into  the  reign- 
ing family. 

Lucina  or  Commodella  on  the  Road  Ostiensis  is  un- 
doubtedly the  place  where  the  body  of  St.  Paul  was  laid 
to  rest  after  his  execution.  The  great  church  of  St.  Paul, 
without  the  walls,  now  stands  over  this  Catacomb. 

Priscilla  on  the  Road  Salaria  is  said  to  have  been  dug  in 
ground  belonging  to  the  Roman  Senator  Pudens,  mentioned 
by  St.  Paul  in  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy.  The  passages 
and  chapels  are  very  spacious ;  the  frescoes  with  which  they 
were  adorned  are  of  great  beauty. 

Pretextatus. — In  the  year  1850  J.  B.  De  Rossi  and 
Father  Marchi  penetrated  to  a  low  level  in  the  Catacomb  of 
Pretextatus  which  had  not  been  plundered.  They  found 
numbers  of  unopened  graves.  The  tablets  were  beautifully 
carved  and  ornamented  with  the  early  Christian  symbols. 


The  Church  in  the  Catacombs  73 


The  corridors  were  of  unusual  height  and  width  and  sup- 
ported by  arches  of  soHd  masonry.  In  one  of  the  chapels 
they  found  a  tomb  covered  by  a  slab  of  marble  in  which 
were  two  massive  bronze  rings.  On  raising  this  cover  they 
found  the  whole  interior  of  the  tomb  cased  with  marble  and 
two  bodies  lying  side  by  side,  one  wrapped  in  cloth  of  gold 
and  the  other  in  purple.  The  frescoes  of  the  chamber  rep- 
resented scenes  from  the  gospel. 

PAINTINGS 

'*  A  universal  instinct  leads  men  to  ornament  the  sepul- 
chres of  the  dead."  Egyptian  and  Roman  tombs  show  the 
character  and  manner  of  the  belief  of  those  nations.  In  the 
Catacombs  through  the  paintings,  inscriptions  and  symbols 
with  which  they  were  adorned,  we  have  laid  bare  the  won- 
derful trust  which  the  early  Christians  had  in  Christ.  We 
have  here  shown  His  divinity,  resurrection  and  His  power 
in  heaven  and  on  earth,  to  save  here  and  hereafter. 

The  Catacomb  paintings  have  been  divided  into  four 
classes : 

Ornamental  and  without  special  significance ;  vines  and 
scroll  work. 

Symbolical. — Palms  and  crowns,  doves,  lambs,  ships, 
anchors,  etc.  Some  of  the  most  important  teaching  is 
found  in  this  class.  The  dove  represented  the  Holy  Spirit 
and  the  ship  the  church.  One  of  the  most  common  sym- 
bols was  that  of  a  fish :  the  initial  letters  of  its  Greek  name 
stood  for  the  names  and  titles  of  our  Lord.  The  mono- 
grams of  Christ's  name  enclosed  in  a  circle  around  which 
were  such  sentences  as,  "  Christus  est  Deus,^^  ''Christ  is 
God";  ^^  Spes  in  ^^,"  "Hope  in  Him,"  are  very  numer- 
ous. 

Sacramental. — There  were  many  representations  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  and  Baptism.  The  earliest  and,  in  fact,  all 
the  pictures  of  this  rite  represent  a  person  standing  in  the 
water  while  water  is  poured  upon  the  head  from  a  shallow 
basin. 


74         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


The  Biblical  Cycle. — We  have  here  many  scenes  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  not  veiled  and  obscure  but 
easily  recognized.  The  range  of  representation  compre- 
hends the  grand  drama  from  the  fall  of  man  to  his  restora- 
tion through  the  greater  man  Christ  Jesus.  A  partial  list  of 
these  paintings  is  here  given :  The  Temptation  and  Fall, 
Adam  and  Eve  driven  from  the  Garden,  Noah  and  the  Ark, 
Sacrifice  of  Isaac,  Moses  receiving  the  Law,  Job,  Elijah, 
Jonah,  the  Three  Hebrew  Children,  Daniel  in  the  Lion's 
Den,  Adoration  of  Christ  by  the  Wise  Men,  Christ  and  the 
Doctors  in  the  Temple,  the  Woman  of  Samaria,  Opening  the 
eyes  of  the  Blind,  the  Paralytic  healed  by  Christ,  Miracles 
of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes,  Raising  of  Lazarus  by  Christ, 
Peter's  Denial,  Pilate  on  the  Judgment  Seat,  etc.  Some  of 
these  paintings  are  worn  and  discoloured  while  others  are  as 
bright  and  fresh  as  if  placed  upon  the  walls  and  ceilings  but 
yesterday.  ''There  is  a  complete  avoidance  of  all  images 
of  suffering  and  woe  or  tragic  awfulness  such  as  abound  in 
sacred  art  above  ground."  ''No  sevenfold  sorrows  of  the 
Mater  Dolorosa.  No  cadaverous  Magdalens  accompanied 
by  eyeless  skulls, ' '  no  pictures  of  tortures  and  fiery  pangs  of 
martyrdom,  but  only  images  of  Christian  joy  and  peace. 
The  storm  of  persecution  might  rage  without,  but  here  all 
was  a  calm  and  holy  gladness.  Christ  had  conquered  sin 
and  death,  why  should  His  followers  fear? 

Character. — A  remarkable  characteristic  of  these  sub- 
terranean cemeteries  is  the  absence  of  all  sensuous  pictures. 
In  Rome  at  this  time  art  administered  to  the  lowest  pas- 
sions ;  the  pictures  in  private  houses  and  public  places  all 
testify  to  this  fact.  Christianity  had  so  cleansed  the  heart 
of  her  devotees  that  the  Catacomb  pictures  appeal  only  to 
the  better  instincts  of  man's  nature.  They  speak  of  another 
country  and  point  to  a  higher  destiny. 

INSCRIPTIONS 

We  turn  now  to  the  Inscriptions,  and  see  in  them  the  ideas 
with  which  the  early  Christians  were  familiar. 


The  Church  in  the  Catacombs  75 

The  heathen  Roman  met  death  with  sullen  resignation  or 
blank  despair.     Immortality  had  become  a  jest  with  him. 

The  Christian  met  death  with  cheerfulness  and  hope. 
The  day  of  death  was  counted  the  day  of  birth  into  a  higher 
and  grander  life.  To  bring  out  this  difference  plainly  there 
is  here  presented  a  few  specimens  of  Pagan  and  Christian 
Burial  Inscriptions  : 

Pagan. — These  show  how  men  without  the  knowledge  of 
the  true  God  met  the  awful  mystery  of  death. 

"I,  Procope,  lift  up  my  hands  against  the  god  who 
snatched  me  away  innocent."  ^^  Somno  Eternally  (In 
eternal  sleep.)  *'  O  husband  dear  to  me,  and  dearest  daugh- 
ter, farewell."  *'To  a  very  sweet  child  whom  the  angry 
gods  gave  to  eternal  sleep. "  *  *  We  are  deceived  by  our  vows, 
misled  by  time,  and  death  derides  our  cares,  anxious  life 
is  naught."  *'0f  all  their  wxalth,  they  possess  only  this 
tomb."  ''My  play  is  ended,  soon  yours  will  be."  "■  Vale 
Aeturfium.*'  (Farewell  Forever.)  '' What  sweet  children, 
what  dear  pledges,  a  dire  day  has  borne  away,  and  plunged 
into  bitter  death."  ''  Here  lies  destroyed  by  fate,  a  son  who 
was  my  only  reason  for  living." 

Christian. — These  show  the  triumphant  faith  of  those 
who  trusted  in  Christ. 

"Called  away  by  Angels."  (A  youth  of  twenty-two 
years.)  '' Laurentius  was  born  into  eternity."  ''Not  lost 
but  gone  before."  "He  went  to  God."  "Here  rests  a 
handmaid  of  God."  "  Petrosa  went  to  her  rest,  a  hand- 
maid of  God  and  of  Christ." 

"  Prima,  thou  livest  in  the  glory  of  God  and  in  the  peace 
of  Christ  our  Lord."  "  Refrain  from  tears,  my  sweet  daugh- 
ters and  husband,  and  believe  it  is  forbidden  to  weep  for 
one  who  lives  in  Christ."  "  Here  reposes  Laurentius  who 
believed  in  the  resurrection."  "  He  went  to  God."  "  Theo- 
dora (twenty-one  years  old).  Now  she  rejoices  in  the  court 
of  Christ,  she  reigns  amid  the  choice  odours  of  Paradise 
where  the  herbage  is  forever  green  beside  the  streams  of 
heaven."     "The  earth  has  the  body,  celestial  realms  the 


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soul."  "Here  rests  my  flesh,  but  at  the  last  day  through 
Christ,  I  believe  it  will  be  raised  from  the  dead."  A 
martyr's  inscription  reads  as  follows  :  '*  In  Christ.  In  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  Marius,  a  young  military 
officer,  who  had  lived  long  enough,  when  with  his  blood  he 
gave  up  his  life  for  Christ.  At  length  he  rested  in  peace. 
The  well  deserving  set  this  up  with  tears  and  in  fear  on  the 
6th  Ides  of  December." 

SPECIAL  OBJECTS 

Many  interesting  objects  have  been  found :  Multitudes  of 
lamps,  earthen  and  silver,  made  in  the  form  of  Christian 
symbols  or  with  Christian  symbols  stamped  upon  them ; 
silver  vessels  plated  with  gold  used  in  administering  the 
Lord's  Supper ;  cameos  and  seal  rings  ^vith  the  monogram 
of  Christ  cut  in  them ;  glass  tumblers  with  pictures  of  the 
Holy  Family  and  Peter  and  Paul  in  gold  blown  in  the  bot- 
toms ;  phials  of  peculiar  shape,  some  with  the  lees  of  wine 
used  in  the  Eucharist  and  some  with  blood  from  the  body 
of  a  martyr  who  suffered  for  the  cause  of  Christ. 

TEACHING 

All  these  things  have  a  deep  meaning.  Our  faith  stands 
sure  beyond  the  power  of  unbelief  to  destroy  it.  However 
man  may  gainsay  the  manuscripts  or  dispute  about  the 
meaning  of  texts,  there  can  be  no  question  about  the  belief 
of  these  early  Christians  as  graven  in  the  rock-hewn  tombs. 

They  regarded  Christ  as  the  ''Alpha  and  Omega,"  "  God 
Christ  Almighty,"  <<  He  is  the  Intercessor  and  Saviour," 
"The  Conqueror  of  Death."  The  Virgin  Mary  has  no 
place  here  :    Christ  is  the  founder  of  His  church. 

The  Trinity  is  acknowledged  in  many  inscriptions  "  In 
the  name  of  the  Holy  Trinity  of  the  Father,  Son  and  Holy 
Spirit." 

The  government  of  the  church  was  very  simple. 

The  soul  immediately  entered  the  haven  of  the  blessed. 
Purgatory  finds  no  mention  here. 


The  Church  in  the  Catacombs  77 


There  was  a  literal  fellowship  of  believers  in  Christ.  The 
wealthy  noble  recognized  his  servant  as  his  fellow  heir  of 
glory,  bowed  with  him  at  the  table  of  their  common  Lord, 
and  in  death  was  buried  with  him  in  the  same  cemetery  as 
a  simple  follower  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Although  the  Christians  were  in  times  of  persecution 
treated  with  extreme  cruelty,  torn  by  wild  beasts,  burned 
and  tortured,  yet  they  followed  Christ  in  a  large  forgiveness. 
No  trace  of  an  expression  or  sentiment  of  revenge  against 
their  persecutors  is  found  in  the  Catacombs.  They  had 
their  reward  in  a  joy  and  peace  that  no  cruelties  could 
conquer. 

If  we  would  know  the  power  of  the  religion  of  our  God 
to  change  the  lives  of  men  who  had  been  living  in  the  midst 
of  a  gross  and  sensuous  heathenism,  and  to  make  them  not 
only  pure  and  holy  but  heroic  even  to  suffering  a  martyr 
death,  we  shall  find  it  here. 

If  we  would  know  the  simplicity  of  Christianity,  we  must 
turn  aside  from  the  gorgeous  churches  of  Rome  above 
ground,  at  the  present  day,  with  their  magnificent  rituals 
and  chanting  priests  and  find  it  in  these  lonely  crypts  where 
ascended  the  hymns  of  the  saints  assembled  beside  the 
martyrs'  graves. 

QUESTIONS 

What  can  be  said  for  the  necessity  of  searching  the  old  rec- 
ords ;  Where  were  the  Catacombs  located  ?  What  was  the 
motive  of  their  making  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the  construction  ? 
Extent  ?  Time  of  existence  ?  Name  some  of  the  groups.  What 
were  the  four  classes  of  paintings  and  their  significance  ?  What 
can  be  said  of  the  character  of  the  paintings  ?  What  can  be 
said  of  the  inscripdons  .''  Pagan  and  Christian  ?  What  can  be 
said  of  the  teaching  ? 


Study  VI 
THE   CHURCH  IN  WORSHIP 

THE  SERVICE  OF  WORSHIP 

Definition. — Early  Christian  worship  was  a  manifestation 
of  the  new  spiritual  life  in  Jesus  Christ  and  a  means  by 
which  that  life  was  fostered  and  increased  in  power  and  effi- 
ciency. 

Participation  in  this  worship  as  a  church  member.  The 
three  essentials  were:  i.  Repentance  of  sin.  2.  Faith 
in  Christ.     3.  Baptism  (Acts   2:    38,  41;   3:   19;  4:12). 

Privileges  of  this  worship  as  a  church  member.  There 
were  four  :  i.  "The  Christian  became  reconciled  to  God 
through  appropriating  to  himself  Christ's  satisfaction  for  sin 
(Romans  5  :  10;  6  :  4-7;  Colossians  i  :  20-22).  His  past 
life  of  sin  no  longer  stood  against  him  in  his  account  with 
God.  He  was  justified.  2.  He  was  sanctified  and  hence- 
forth called  holy  '  because  he  belonged  to  God  by  the  con- 
secration of  baptism  (i  Corinthians  6:  11).  3.  He  received 
the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts  2  :  38)  as  a  supernatural 
power  within  him.  4.  He  was  admitted  to  the  common 
life  and  sacraments  of  the  Christian  brotherhood.  On  his 
part,  in  turn,  he  was  bound,  so  far  as  he  could,  to  live  up  to 
the  high  standard  of  that  life,  to  put  on  the  new  man,  which 
after  God  is  created  in  righteousness  and  true  holiness ' 
(Ephesians  4 :  24)." 

Function. — One  of  the  great  functions  of  the  church  is  to 
teach  men  how  to  worship  God  ;  to  do  this  they  must  have 
right  thoughts  about  God.  Jesus  said,  '*  God  is  a  Spirit  and 
they  that  worship  Him  must  worship  Him  in  spirit  and  in 
truth  (John  4  :  24).  '«  Men  must  be  led  in  their  worship  by  a 
proper   exposition   of    the   Scriptures,    by   prayer    and    by 

78 


The  Church  in  Worship  79 


praise.  "  Men  not  only  need  to  be  urged  to  be  true  to  their 
consciences,  but  their  consciences  need  to  be  informed." 
The  place  of  the  Christian  church  in  this  matter  is  clearly 
defined  in  the  New  Testament,  it  can  be  taken  by  no  other 
institution ;  and  no  other  organization  has  so  high  a  mission 
as  this,  to  bring  man  into  harmony  with  God. 

UNIVERSALITY,  PLACES,  TIMES 

Universality. — Christianity  is  no  secret  cult.  Its  prin- 
ciples and  doctrines  were  promulgated  not  for  a  chosen  few, 
but  for  all  classes,  kinds  and  conditions  of  men,  in  all  ages 
(Romans  16 :  25,  26;  Acts  3  :  25  ;  14:  15,  16;  17  :  30,  31 ; 
3:  22,  23;  4:  11;  5:  18;  11:  32).  Jesus' parting  instruc- 
tions to  His  disciples  were,  *'Go  ye  into  all  the  world  and 
preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature ' '  (Mark  1 6  :  15;  Mat- 
thew 28  :  19,  20 ;  Acts  i  :  8), 

On  the  day  of  Pentecost  this  command  began  to  be  liter- 
ally obeyed.  Soon  the  gospel  was  being  spread  aboard, 
everywhere,  and  men  of  all  nationalities  came  at  its  call  to 
worship  God.  Whatever  bands  of  Judaism  were  about 
it  at  first,  it  soon  burst  them  by  its  marvellous  growing 
power.  It  appealed  to  man  as  man.  In  this  universal 
character  it  differed  from  all  other  religions.  "  The  heathen 
religions  belonged  each  to  a  particular  nation."  Whoever 
would  accept  the  benefit  of  one  of  these  must  become  a  sub- 
ject of  the  nation  of  which  it  was  a  part.  The  conception 
— and  performance — of  an  act  of  religious  worship  as  some- 
thing apart  from  the  state  was  a  thought  entirely  foreign  to 
the  heathen  mind.  Even  some  of  the  apostles  had  a  strug- 
gle to  get  free  from  the  thought  that  Christianity  was  to  be 
a  reformed  or  modified  Judaism. 

The  originality  of  Christianity  is  in  the  proclaiming  of 
redemption  for  all  under  conditions  which  can  be  met  by 
all. 

Places. — They  were  of  all  kinds.  The  first  meeting 
place  for  worship,  after  the  ascension  of  Christ,  was  in  an 
upper  room  in  Jerusalem  where  prayer  and  supplication  were 


8o         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


made  by  the  disciples  (Acts  i  :  13,  14).  The  second  place 
was  the  Temple  where  Peter  preached  his  sermon  (Acts  2 : 
4,  6,  46 ;  3  :  1 1 ;  5  : 1 2)  and  three  thousand  people  were  con- 
verted. The  third  place  was  the  house  church.  When 
Peter  was  liberated  from  prison  he  came  to  the  house  of 
Mary,  ''where  many  were  gathered  together  praying" 
(Acts  12  :  12) — Paul  makes  special  mention  of  the  "house 
church"  in  Romans  16:  5;  i  Corinthians  16:  19;  Colos- 
sians  4:  15.  The  fourth  place  was  the  Jewish  synagogue. 
In  point  of  time,  however,  the  synagogue  preceded  all 
places  for  Jesus,  the  Head  of  the  Christian  church,  pro- 
claimed His  message  in  it  when  on  earth.  There  are  many 
instances  of  His  preaching  in  synagogues.  ''And  Jesus 
went  about  all  Galilee  teaching  in  their  synagogues,  and 
preaching  the  gospel  of  the  Kingdom"  (Matthew  4:  23). 
In  Luke  (4:  14-21)  we  again  read  that  He  taught  in  the 
synagogues  of  Galilee,  and  in  the  one  in  Nazareth  He  read 
from  the  prophet  Isaiah  (61  :  i)  and  declared  that  this 
scripture  was  fulfilled  in  Him.  Paul's  custom  was,  in  his 
missionary  travels,  to  first  seek  the  Jewish  synagogue  and  to 
there  proclaim  his  message  (Acts  9  :  20 ;  13  :  5,  14,  42 ;  14 : 
i;  17:  10,  17;  18:  4,  19,  26;  19:  8),  declaring  that  the 
Messiah  and  Saviour  had  come  in  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ. 
In  case  the  message  was  heeded  the  worshippers  would  soon 
turn  the  place,  practically,  into  a  Christian  meeting  place ; 
in  case  it  was  not  heeded  the  Christians  would  split  off  from 
the  Jewish  congregation  and  seek  houses  or  other  places  in 
which  to  meet.  The  Jewish  synagogues  played  a  great  part 
in  the  helping  to  spread  Christianity.  They  were  very 
numerous  throughout  the  Roman  Empire.  The  fifth  place 
was  the  distinctively  Christian  church  edifice.  At  what 
definite  time  the  Christians  began  to  erect  buildings  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  services  of  worship  in  them  is  not 
known,  but  as  they  were  accustomed  to  hold  frequent  as- 
semblies and  the  congregations  rapidly  increased  it  is 
manifest  that  private  houses  would  soon  cease  to  accommo- 
date them.     In  First  Corinthians  (11  :  20-22)  Paul  implies 


The  Church  in  Worship  8l 


that  the  Corinthian  church  was  meeting  in  some  place  other 
than  a  house  (i  Corinthians  ii  :  i8).  That  they  did  erect 
buildings — or  hire  them — and  some  of  them  of  very  good  size 
is  quite  manifest  in  spite  of  the  numerous  persecutions  to 
which  they  were  subjected.  That,  later  on,  the  church 
edifices  grew  to  be  large,  numerous,  and  had  lands  attached  to 
them  is  shown  by  the  decree  of  the  Emperor  Diocletian  in 
302  A.  D.,  ordering  their  destruction  and  the.  confiscation  of 
their  lands.  It,  however,  should  be  remembered  that  as 
Christianity  was  a  religion  of  the  spirit  it  was  preached  any- 
where and  everywhere,  in  the  market  place,  by  the  roadside, 
by  the  river's  brink,  by  the  seashore  and  in  the  house.  It 
did  not  depend  upon  a  certain  place  or  a  ritual,  but  men  in 
everyplace  could  worship  God  ''in  spirit  and  in  truth" 
(John  4:  21-24). 

The  publicity  or  secrecy  with  which  the  meetings  were 
held  varied  greatly  and  according  to  circumstances.  In 
times  of  persecution  the  Christians  were  often  compelled  to 
abandon  public  services.  Then  there  would  be  periods  of 
many  years  in  which  they  met  together  in  the  most  open 
way  and  publicly  invited  unbelievers  in. 

Times. — The  custom  of  the  New  Testament  churches 
was  to  meet  for  worship  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  (Acts 
20  :  7;  I  Corinthians  16  :  2;  Revelation  i  :  10).  The 
first  day  of  the  week  was  selected  and  held  sacred  because 
the  Lord  Himself  had  sanctified  it  by  His  resurrection  (Mat- 
thew 28  :  I ;  Mark  16:2;  Luke  24  :  i ;  John  20  :  i,  19), 
and  had  further  emphasized  it  by  an  appearance  to  the  dis- 
ciples (John  20  :  26)  and  again  by  the  outpouring  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  which  that  year  was 
also  the  first  day  of  the  week.  "  The  Lord's  Day  is,  in  an 
especial  sense,  the  feast  of  life.  The  resurrection  of  Jesus 
Christ  was  not  merely  the  raising  to  life  of  an  individual 
man  but  of  human  nature."  All  that  was  true  in  the  spirit- 
ual content  for  the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  commandment 
for  the  use  of  the  Sabbath  day  is  found  in  the  Lord's  Day 
and  more.     "The  church  professed  to  be  a  divine  devel- 


82         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


opment  of  Judaism  (Acts  24  :  14,  etc.).  All  that  was 
eternally  true  in  the  law  is  with  us  still  and  that  which  was 
essentially  transitory  was  tolerated"  until  its  uselessness  was 
seen  and  it  passed  away.  Undoubtedly  many  Jewish 
Christians  at  first  observed  both  the  Jewish  Sabbath  and  the 
Lord's  Day.  Paul's  custom  was,  it  seems,  often  to  observe 
both  days,  for  he  entered  the  Jewish  synagogues  and  preached 
there  on  the  Sabbath  days  and  he  also  met  with  the  dis- 
tinctively Christian  congregations  on  the  Lord's  Day.  It 
was  doubtless  also  customary  at  first  for  the  Christians  to 
meet  daily  (Acts  2  :  42,  46),  but  this  might  have  been  early  in 
the  morning  or  at  night  before  and  after  the  day's  work  was 
done.  One  writer  says,  "  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  Jewish 
worship,  at  first,  at  stated  hours  in  the  temple,  the  disciples 
met  daily  in  groups  in  private  houses.  At  these  meetings 
they  sat  at  the  table  together  and  partook  of  a  common 
meal,  the  Agape  or  love  feast.  At  the  close  of  this  repast, 
whosoever  presided  handed  around  the  bread  and  wine  as 
Jesus  had  done  at  the  last  supper.  This  was  the  primitive 
form  of  sacrament. ' ' 

The  emphasis  in  regard  to  the  times  of  meeting  was  not 
upon  the  *' ought"  but  upon  the  ^Move "  of  doing  so. 
There  is  a  vast  difference  between  a  man  keeping  one  day  a 
week  sacred  because  he  is  obliged  to  do  so  by  some  law  or 
custom  and  the  observance  of  a  holy  day  because  it  is  a 
delight  to  do  so.  The  great  emphasis  of  New  Testament 
teaching  is  upon  the  manifestation  of  the  spiritual  life  in 
seeking  both  times  and  places  to  make  known  and  increase 
that  life.  The  early  disciples  when  they  met  daily  in  the 
temple  did  so  not  because  they  were  required  to  do  so,  but 
because  it  was  a  heart  service.  When  Paul  speaks  as  he 
does  to  the  Galatians  about  the  observance  of  days  and 
months  and  years  he  is  evidently  (Galatians  4  :  10;  com- 
pare 4  :  1-9  and  5  :  1-26)  trying  to  show  them  that  mere 
observance  of  rules  without  any  heart  in  it  is  not  what  God 
wants.  Again,  when  Christ  said,  "  The  Sabbath  was  made 
for  man  and  not  man  for  the  Sabbath"  (Mark  2  :  27)  He 


The  Church  in  Worship  83 

immediately  expounds  it  with,  **Is  it  lawful  to  do  good  on 
the  Sabbath  days,  or  to  do  evil,  to  save  life  or  to  kill" 
(Mark  3:4)?  To  those  who  cease  from  secular  work  upon 
the  Lord's  Day  and  make  it  a  pleasure  day  with  no  attempt 
to  build  up  the  spiritual  life,  and  with  no  seeking  of  God  to 
worship  Him,  this  day  is  often  a  positive  detriment.  The 
injunction,  'Met  us  not  forsake  the  assembling  of  ourselves 
together  ...  as  the  manner  of  some  is"  (Hebrews 
10  :  25)  and  the  exhortations  of  the  early  Christian  writers 
for  the  observance  of  the  Lord's  Day  were  to  the  end  of 
building  up  the  spiritual  life.  Clement,  Barnabas,  Justin 
Martyr  and  Ignatius  unite  in  urging  their  fellow  Christians 
to  meet  together  often  that  they  may  retain  and  increase 
their  faith  in  the  midst  of  a  gross  heathenism  and  frequent 
severe  persecutions. 

FORMS,  GIFTS,  ORDINANCES 

Form  of  Public  Worship. — i.  Orderliness.  Paul  ex- 
horted the  Corinthian  church,  *'Let  all  things  be  done 
decently  and  in  order"  (i  Corinthians  14  :  26-33,  40). 
The  effort  was  made  in  all  the  churches  to  carry  out  this 
injunction. 

2.  Openness.  The  public  services,  which  all  Christians 
were  expected  to  attend,  were  also  open  to  non-Christians 
as  well ;  m  this  respect  they  had  a  missionary  aspect  and 
were  of  great  usefulness  in  extending  a  knowledge  of  the 
Christian  religion. 

3.  Simplicity.  As  the  church  was,  in  certain  respects, 
an  outgrowth  of  the  Jewish  synagogue  it  partook  of  its  sim- 
plicity. There  were  no  gorgeous  rituals,  no  chanting  priests, 
no  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary  or  adoration  of  saints,  no 
pictures  of  Christ  hanging  upon  the  cross  and  no  confession- 
als ;  all  these  came  after  the  primitive  age  of  the  church  had 
passed  and  when  men  had  given  up  a  heart  religion  for  that 
of  a  form.  Besides  the  descriptions  of  the  simple  life  of  the 
early  churches  drawn  for  us  in  the  Acts  and  epistles  there 
are   two   others — among   many   such— which  are  here  set 


84         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 

down ;  one  is  by  a  Christian  and  the  other  by  a  heathen 
writer. 

Justin  Martyr,  an  early  church  father  (b.  105-d.  165  a.  d.) 
wrote,  *' And  on  the  day  called  Sunday  all  who  live  in  the 
city  or  in  the  country  gather  together  to  one  place  and  the 
memoirs  of  the  apostles  or  the  writings  of  the  prophets  are 
read,  as  long  as  time  permits ;  then,  when  the  reader  has 
ceased,  the  president  verbally  instructs  and  exhorts  to  the 
imitation  of  these  good  things.  Then  we  all  rise  together 
and  pray,  and  as  we  before  said  when  our  prayer  is  ended, 
bread  and  wine  and  water  are  brought,  and  the  president 
in  like  manner  offers  prayers  and  thanksgivings  according 
to  his  ability  and  the  people  assent  saying  Amen.  And 
there  is  a  distribution  to  each  and  a  participation  of  that 
over  which  thanks  have  been  given,  and  to  those  who  are 
absent  a  portion  is  sent  by  the  deacons.  And  they  who  are 
well  to  do  and  willing,  give  what  each  thinks  fit,  and  what 
is  collected  is  deposited  with  the  president  who  succours  the 
orphans  and  widows  and  those  in  sickness  or  want,  the 
prisoners  and  the  strangers  among  us." 

Pliny,  the  governor  of  Bithynia  in  Asia  Minor,  in  1 1 2  a.  D. 
wrote  a  letter  to  the  emperor  Trajan  in  which  he  says — after 
a  careful  official  examination  of  many  Christians  in  regard 
to  their  worship  with  a  view  of  finding  charges  against  them 
— ''They  affirmed  that  they  were  wont  to  meet  together  on 
a  stated  day  before  it  was  light  and  sing  among  themselves 
a  hymn  to  Christ  as  a  God,  and  to  bind  themselves  with  an 
oath  not  to  the  commission  of  any  wickedness,  but  that  they 
would  not  be  guilty  of  theft  or  robbery  or  adultery :  would 
not  falsify  their  word  or  refuse  to  return  a  pledge  committed 
to  them,  when  called  upon  to  do  so.  VVhen  these  things 
were  performed,  it  was  their  custom  to  separate  and  then 
come  together  for  a  meal  which  they  ate  in  common  but 
without  disorder." 

4.  Arrangement  of  the  public  service.  ''In  First  Cor- 
inthians we  find  that  Paul  presents  to  us  two  kinds  of  Chris- 
tian worship.     In  chapter  fourteen  is  described  a  meeting 


The  Church  in  Worship  85 


whose  chief  aim  is  mutual  edification ;  in  chapter  1 1  :  1 7-34 
one  of  a  very  different  character  and  ceremonial,  the  pur- 
pose of  which  is  to  partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper."  It  is  for 
a  meeting  of  the  first  kind  that  there  was  a  public  order  of 
service ;  the  second  was  of  a  private  character  and  limited 
to  baptized  Christians. 

There  were  four  prominent  and  essential  elements  in  the 
public  service  of  worship. 

(a)  Teaching.  Under  this  would  be  included  the  read- 
ing of  the  Scriptures  (Colossians  4:  16 ;  James  i  :  22; 
I  Thessalonians  5  :  27  ;  i  Timothy  4  :  13).  While  the 
Epistles  might  not  yet  have  been  classed  as  Scripture,  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  word,  yet  they  might  have  been  regarded 
as  such.  There  is  here  shown,  however,  the  practice  fol- 
lowed from  the  custom  of  the  Jewish  synagogue  (Acts  13  : 
155  Luke  4:  16-27)  ^"d  which  we  still  follow.  Again  a 
discourse  or  sermon  came  after  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures 
in  the  Jewish  synagogue  and  this  we  find  to  be  the  case 
in  the  Christian  assemblies  (Acts  20  :  7).  There  might  be 
more  than  one  discourse  after  the  reading. 

The  teaching  was  not  confined  to  the  reading  of  the  Scrip- 
tures and  the  sermons  in  the  public  services ;  there  was  also 
a  large  work  done  in  the  instruction  of  new  converts  in  the 
facts  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  facts  about  Christ — His  life 
on  earth,  death  and  resurrection — and  the  Christian  doc- 
trines. This  work  was  continual,  painstaking  and  unremit- 
ting. There  was  a  ''gift  of  teaching"  and  a  class  of  men 
like  Aquila  and  Apollos  who  gave  themselves  to  this  needed 
work ;  they  were  called  teachers. 

(b)  Prayer  "was  made  standing  (Mark  11  :  25)  or 
kneeling  (Acts  20:36;  21:5)  with  uphfted  hands" 
(i  Timothy  2  :  8).  The  prayer  of  one  person  was  often  ac- 
cepted as  the  prayer  of  all,  the  congregation  assenting  to  it 
(Acts  4  :  24-30).  There  were  special  objects  of  prayer 
(Acts  12:5)  for  the  advance  of  the  Gospel  (Romans  15  :  30; 
Ephesians  6:18;  Colossians  4:352  Thessalonians  3  :  i) 
civil  rulers  (i  Timothy  2  ;  i)  erring  members  (James  5  '  i6| 


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I  John  5:16)  but  of  a  formulated  set  of  prayers  there  is  no 
trace  except  the  Lord's  Prayer  (Matthew  6  :  9-13)  and  cer- 
tain benedictions  (Romans  15  :  33  ;   16  :  20). 

U)  Praise.  The  hymns  and  ascriptions  of  praise  are 
very  frequently  found  in  the  New  Testament  and  the  early 
Christian  writers.  They  express  great  religious  emotion  and 
thankfulness.  There  was  not  only  singing  of  hymns  and 
Psalms,  but  outbursts  of  spoken  praise  of  the  goodness  of  God 
and  for  salvation  through  Jesus  Christ  (Romans  9  :  5  ;  16:  25; 
Galatians  1:5;  Ephesians  3  :  20  ;  Philippians  4  :  20 ;  i  Tim- 
othy    1:17;     Romans    1 1  :  33-36 ;     Revelation    4:11; 

II  :  17;  15  :  3;  Acts  16  :  25  ;  i  Corinthians  14  :  15  ;  Co- 
lossians  3  :  16;  James  5  :  13).  Paul  writing  to  the  Ephe- 
sians says,  ''Speaking  to  yourselves  in  Psalms  and  hymns 
and  spiritual  songs,  singing  and  making  melody  in  your 
heart  to  God.  Giving  thanks  in  all  things  always  unto  God 
and  the  Father  in  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
(5  :  19,  20)  and  to  the  Philippians  (4:  4)  "Rejoice  in  the 
Lord  alway :   and  again  I  say,  Rejoice." 

(^)  The  offering.  This  consisted  of  the  purely  volun- 
tary contributions  of  the  congregation.  It  was  sc  from  the 
beginning ;  even  in  that  wonderful  outburst  of  religious  en- 
thusiasm when  all  the  property  was  given  up  by  certain  con- 
verts there  was  no  requirement  about  the  matter  (Acts 
4  •  34»  35  >  compare  5:4).  It  was  no  compulsory  act  and 
probably  not  universal,  for  we  find  a  number  of  instances 
where  all  the  property  was  not  handed  over  as  in  the  case 
of  Mary  the  mother  of  Mark  who  owned  a  house  in  Jerusa- 
lem (Acts  12:  12)  and  Tabitha  who  had  means  of  her  own 
which  she  bestowed  in  almsgiving  (Acts  9  :  36).  But  the 
principle  of  the  voluntary  offering  was  fully  established. 
Every  man  was  to  give  according  to  his  ability  (Acts  1 1  :  29) 
and  the  offering  was  taken  upon  the  first  day  of  the  week 
(i  Corinthians  16:2).  If  a  man  chose  to  give  all  he  had 
or  a  certain  proportion,  that  was  a  matter  settled  between 
him  and  God,  but  all  were  urged  to  contribute  to  the  full 
extent  of  their  ability.     The  money  was  used  for  the  poor  of 


The  Church  in  Worship  87 


the  church,   for  missionary   purposes    (Acts    6:1;   2 :  45 ; 

4  :  35  ;  1 1  :  29  ;  24  :  1 7  ;  Romans  15  ;  25-27  ;  i  Corinthians 
16:  I ;  Galatians  2  :  10),  the  support  of  the  ministry 
(i   Corinthians  9:14,   4-14;  Galatians  6:6;    i   Timothy 

5  :  18),  the  other  expenses  of  maintaining  the  church  or- 
ganization and  gifts  for  special  objects. 

Form  of  Private  ^A^orship. — Our  Lord  laid  much  stress 
upon  the  inward  worship  with  the  heart.  The  Sermon  on 
the  Mount  is  an  exposition — with  the  Beatitudes  as  the  text 
— of  the  necessity  of  the  heart  service  of  God  which  must 
precede  all  true  public  worship.  He  said  :  ''  Where  your 
treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be  also  "  (Matthew  6  :  21), 
"When  thou  pray  est,  enter  into  thy  closet,  and  when  thou 
hast  shut  the  door,  pray  to  thy  Father  which  is  in  secret ; 
and  thy  Father  which  seeth  in  secret  shall  reward  thee 
openly"  (Matthew  6:  6)  and  "Every  good  tree  bringeth 
forth  good  fruit;  but  a  corrupt  tree  bringeth  forth  evil 
fruit  "  (Matthew  7  :  17-20). 

Gifts. — There  were  many  manifestations  of  divine  power 
in  the  early  church,  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  We  find  mention 
of  these  manifestations  in  the  Charisma,  or  gifts,  as  they 
were  called.  "  Every  Christian  possessed  one  or  more  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  These  gifts  were  of  many  kinds,  in- 
cluding all  the  mental,  moral  and  spiritual  endowments  of 
the  Christian."  Paul  gives  a  list  of  these  different  gifts  and 
shows  their  diversity  by  the  same  spirit  in  i  Corinthians 
12  :  1-12.  We  recognize  many  in  this  list  as  still  in  the  pos- 
session of  Christians ;  others,  like  the  gifts  of  miracles  and 
tongues,  seem  to  have  been  withdrawn. 

Every  Christian  was  called  upon  then — and  is  now — to 
exercise  his  gift.  "As  every  man  hath  received  the  gift, 
even  so  minister  the  same  one  to  another,  as  good  stewards 
of  the  manifold  grace  of  God  "  (i  Peter  4  :  10,  11). 

Every  gift,  however,  was  to  be  used  with  due  regard  to 
the  rights  of  others.  In  the  Corinthian  church  where  there 
were  certain  abuses  of  gifts  (i  Corinthians  14:  26-33)  ^^^ 
those  who  possessed  the  gift  of  speaking  or  of  tongues  were 


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exercising  them  irrespective  of  each  others'  rights,  Paul  lays 
down  certain  rules.  '*(i)  Not  more  than  one  to  speak  at 
a  time,  each  must  wait  his  turn.  (2)  The  one  who  is 
speaking  to  stop  if  he  perceives  another  waiting  to  deliver 
a  revelation.  (3)  The  '  speaker  in  tongues  '  is  not  allowed 
to  speak  unless  an  interpreter  be  present.  (4)  The  revela- 
tion of  the  prophet  is  to  be  checked  by  those  who  possess 
the  gift  of  'discerning  spirits.'  " 

The  different  gifts  were  bestowed  for  the  purpose  of  build- 
ing up  the  church. 

Ordinances.  (See  an  account  also  of  them  in  Study  I). 
— I.  Baptism.  This  was  the  rite  by  which  the  convert  was 
formally  admitted  to  the  church  (Acts  2  :  41).  Baptism 
was  by  the  command  of  Christ  and  was  performed  in  the 
name  "  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  "  (Matthew  28  :  19)  j  it  was — and  is — the  outward 
sign  of  the  inward  cleansing  and  is  to  be  administered  to  all 
Christians  (Acts  19 :  1-5  ;  Romans  6:  ^i  Colossians  2 : 
11-13  j  John  3:5;!  Peter  3  :  20,  21). 

The  Lord's  Supper  (i  Corinthians  11  :  23-26)  was  not 
only  a  part  of  the  worship,  but  a  cardinal  point  in  it.  The 
observance  of  this  feast  was  also  by  the  command  of  Christ, 
who  said,  "  This  do  in  remembrance  of  Me  "  (Luke  22  :  19, 
15-22;  Matthew  26 :  26-28;  Mark  14:  21-26).  His  body 
was  broken  for  us.  His  blood  was  shed  for  the  remission  of 
our  sins.  The  expression  of  the  **  breaking  of  bread"  in 
Acts  2  :  42  has  reference  to  something  more  than  a  common 
meal.     It  was  a  religious  act  (i  Corinthians  10 :  16). 

This  service  was  of  a  much  more  private  character  than 
the  public  one  of  worship  (i  Corinthians  11  :  17-34)  and 
restricted  to  baptized  Christians.  There  seems  to  have  been 
at  first  a  daily  administration  of  this  ordinance  (Acts  2  :  46), 
but  later  it  seems  to  have  been  observed  every  first  day  of 
the  week  (Acts  20  :  7).  At  first  also  it  was  held  in  the  even- 
ing at  the  close  of  a  meal  eaten  in  common,  following  the 
example  of  Christ  and  His  disciples.  The  meal  was  called 
the   Agape — or  love   feast — and  was  afterwards  separated 


The  Church  in  Worship  89 


from  the  Eucharist.  The  Lord's  Supper  being  held  in  the 
early  morning  while  the  common  meal  was  eaten  in  the 
evening.  Now  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  by 
itself  a  result  foreshadowed  in  Paul's  advice  to  the  Corinthian 
Christians  when  he  saw  the  abuses  which  grew  out  of  the 
meal  eaten  in  common.  The  significance  of  this  ordinance 
was  deepened  and  intensified  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the 
Christians  as  its  great  spiritual  meaning  was  more  and  more 
clearly  perceived.  This  was  the  central  point  of  worship  in 
the  apostolic  age. 

OBJECTS,  RESULTS 

Objects. — If  we  look  at  the  textual  testimony,  as  it  stands 
in  the  New  Testament  and  also  that  of  the  early  Christian 
writers,  we  find  that  God,  the  Father,  was  exalted  and 
worshipped  and  Jesus  Christ,  His  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit. 
The  baptismal  formulas  were  in  the  names  of  the  three  in 
one. 

Christ  was  the  Lord  and  Saviour  who  had  come  from  the 
Father,  who  had  appeared  on  the  earth  in  bodily  form  and 
was,  after  His  ascension,  still  with  the  disciples  comforting, 
leading  and  blessing  not  only  them  but  all  who  had  faith  in 
Him  and  called  upon  His  name. 

The  centrality  of  the  worship  in  Christ  is  very  plainly 
stated  by  Paul,  ''That  every  tongue  should  confess  that 
Jesus  Christ  is  Lord,  to  the  glory  of  the  Father"  (Philip- 
pians  2:11,  5-1 1 ;  Colossians  i  :  13-21). 

The  testimony  to  this  exaltation  and  worship  of  Jesus 
Christ  is  found  in  man  passages — only  a  few  of  which  are 
given  here — in  the  books  of  the  New  Testament.  These 
passages  may  be  grouped  under  five  heads : 

(a).  Preexistence  of  Christ. — With  God,  the  Father, 
before  the  world  was  (John  i:i;  6:62;8:58;  17:5;  2 
Corinthians  8:9).  He  came  down  from  heaven  (John 
3*  ^3j  13-  3^6-  28;  I  Corinthians  15  :  47 ;  John  1:3; 
Colossians  i  :  15-18). 

(^).     Divine  Tittles  Given  Christ — The  Word  was  God 


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(John  I  :  i).  "My  Lord  and  my  God"  (John  20:  28). 
**  Who  is  over  all  God  blessed  forever  "  (Romans  9  :  5). 
"  God  was  manifest  in  the  flesh  "  (i  Timothy  3:16).  ''  But 
unto  the  Son  He  saith,  Thy  throne,  O  God,  is  forever  and 
ever"  (Hebrews  i  :  8).  "This  is  the  true  God"  (i  John 
5  :  20). 

{c).  Divine  Attributes  Ascribed  to  Christ. — Etern- 
ity (John  1:2).  Unchangeableness  (Hebrews  i  :  11). 
"Jesus  Christ  the  same  yesterday,  today  and  forever" 
(Hebrews  13:  8).  Everywhere  present  (John  3 :  13;  Mat- 
thew 18:20).  "I  am  with  you  alway  even  unto  the  end 
of  the  world"  (Matthew  28:  20).  All  knowing,  "All 
things  are  delivered  unto  Me  by  My  Father ' '  (Matthew 
11:  27;  John  2:  23-25).  All  powerful,  "Upholding  all 
things  by  the  word  of  His  power  "  (Hebrews  1:3).  I  am 
the  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  beginning  and  the  ending,  saith 
the  Lord  which  is  and  which  is  to  come,  the  Almighty 
(Revelation  1:8). 

(d).  Divine  Works  Wrought  by  Christ — "All  things 
were  made  by  Him  "  (John  i  :  3-10).  "For  by  Him  were 
all  things  created  "  (Colossians  i  :  16,  17).  Upholding  all 
things  by  the  word  of  His  power  (Hebrews  1:3).  Judg- 
ment, "  Before  Him  shall  be  gathered  all  nations  "  (Matthew 

(e).  Supreme  Worship  to  be  Paid  to  Christ  (Matthew 
28  :  19). — All  men  should  honour  the  Son  even  as  they 
honour  the  Father  (John  5  :  23  ;  John  14  :  i ;  Acts  7  :  59,  60; 
I  Corinthians  1:2;  2  Corinthians  13 :  14;  Revelation  i :  5,  6). 

Results The  exaltation  of  Christ  exalted  the  lives  of  the 

worshippers ;  they  died  to  the  old  lives  of  sin  and  strove  to 
be  renewed  in  the  purity  and  holiness  of  the  life  of  the 
Master  whom  they  served  and  revered.  The  good  results 
of  the  new  worship  were  so  plain  and  manifest  that  they 
were  a  marvel  to  many  heathen  writers.  To  those  most 
zealous  in  the  performance  of  their  duties  of  worship  came 
the  largest  results. 


The  Church  in  Worship  gi 


QUESTIONS 

Give  a  definition  of  early  Christian  worship.  What  were  the 
three  essentials  of  participation  in  it  ?  What  were  its  privileges  ? 
What  was  its  function  ?  What  can  be  said  of  its  universality  ? 
Give  an  account  of  the  places  and  times.  What  can  be  said  of 
the  form  of  pubhc  worship  ?  Orderliness  ?  Openness  ?  Sim- 
phcity  ?  Arrangement  of  the  pubhc  service — the  four  essential 
elements  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the  form  of  private  worship  ? 
What  can  be  said  of  gifts  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the  ordinances? 
What  can  be  said  of  the  objects  and  results  of  service  ? 


Study  VII 
THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  BOOKS 

THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  BOOKS 

The  First  Written  Documents  used  by  the  Church 
were  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  These  constituted  the 
Bible  of  our  Lord. 

The  gospel  of  Christ  was  preached  and  the  church  was 
organized  before  the  writings,  which  are  now  collected  in  our 
New  Testament,  came  into  existence. 

An  Appeal  for  the  Truth  of  the  new  Christian  doc- 
trine was  made  to  the  Old  Testament  books. 

Jesus  Christ  declared  that  *' this  scripture  "  was  fulfilled 
in  Him  (Luke  4  :  16-22).  He  said,  after  His  resurrection, 
*'  These  are  the  words  which  I  spake  unto  you,  while  I  was 
yet  with  you,  that  all  things  must  be  fulfilled  which  were 
written  in  the  Law  of  Moses  and  in  the  Prophets,  and  in  the 
Psalms  concerning  Me  "  (Luke  24:  44). 

Peter  in  his  speech  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2  : 
16-47),  Stephen  in  his  address  to  the  Council  (Acts  7  : 
1-60),  and  Paul  in  his  defense  before  the  Jews  in  the  Tem- 
ple (Acts  22  :  1-14)  and  also  before  Felix  (Acts  24  :  10-21) 
and  Festus  and  Agrippa  (Acts  26:  1-32),  show  the  esteem 
and  reverence  they  have  for  the  authority  and  inspiration  of 
the  Old  Testament. 

When  the  New  Testament  books  came  finally  to  be  writ- 
ten we  find  their  authors  constantly  referring,  in  about  six 
hundred  references  and  quotations,  to  the  ancient  sacred 
books  of  the  Jews. 

The  early  Christians  delighted  to  read  in  the  Prophets, 
where  they  found  prophecies  and  foreshadowings  of  Christ, 
His  sufferings  and  His  victory. 

92 


The  Church  in  the  Books  93 


THE  TRANSITION  PERIOD 

There  is  such  dependence,  now,  upon  the  records  of  the 
New  Testament  for  a  knowledge  of  the  historical  Christ  and 
the  organization  of  the  primitive  churches  that  it  is  hard  to 
reahze  that  for  a  number  of  years,  after  His  resurrection 
there  was  no  written  history,  so  far  as  we  know,  of  these 
great  matters. 

This  transition  period,  from  the  use  of  the  Old  Testament 
to  the  New  Testament — the  use  of  both — and  the  change 
from  oral  to  written  testimony,  is  one  of  great  interest. 
<'  We  are  so  accustomed  to  reading,  writing  and  printing  that 
it  is  difficult  to  make  real  to  ourselves  a  state  of  things  in 
which  the  oral  was  the  usual  way  of  gaining  influence  for 
personality  or  currency  of  ideas.  No  less  than  three  of  the 
schools  of  Hellenic  philosophy  got  their  very  names  for 
places  where  oral  instruction  was  conducted.  The  like 
would  have  been  still  more  true  in  Palestine  or  again  of  the 
stratum  of  Gentile  society  which  Paul's  mission  mostly 
reached." 

The  Eye-witnesses  or  those  who  saw  Christ.  The 
gospel  story,  and  its  significance,  was  first  told  by  men  who 
had  personal  knowledge  of  the  events  which  they  related. 
The  testimony  of  competent  eye-witnesses  cannot  be  im- 
peached and  is  superior  to  any  other.  Peter  and  John 
(Acts  3-5  ch)  and  the  other  disciples  had  no  use  for  written 
testimony  to  attest  the  truth  of  their  message;  they  were 
well  qualified  witnesses  to  a  certain  set  of  facts  of  which  the 
hearers,  whom  they  addressed,  had  more  or  less  knowledge. 

Ear-^A^itnesses. — There  were  multitudes,  dwellers  in 
Jerusalem  and  Palestine,  who  heard  those  who  had  seen  the 
Christ  and,  having  ample  opportunity  to  verify  the  facts,  be- 
lieved in  Him.  Many  visitors  in  Jerusalem  who  lived  in 
distant  cities  also  heard  the  words  of  those  who  had  seen  the 
wonderful  things  which  they  related  and  carried  away  the 
truth  with  them  to  tell  the  story  to  others  (Acts  2  :  5-1 1,  41  ; 
4:  4;  8:  i). 

This  oral  testimony  was  greatly  preferred  and  was  lisiened 


94         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


to  with  more  eagerness  than  any  reading  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment records  even  after  they  came  into  existence.  Papias— 
a  disciple  of  Polycarp,  who  was  a  disciple  of  John  the  Apostle 
— expressed  the  general  sentiment — in  the  first  half  of  the 
second  century — when  he  wrote,  **  If  then  any  one  came 
who  had  been  a  follower  of  the  elders  I  would  question  him 
about  the  words  of  the  elders  what,  by  their  report  Andrew 
or  what  Peter  had  said,  or  what  had  been  said  by  Philip  or 
by  Thomas,  or  by  James,  or  by  John  or  by  Matthew  or  by 
any  other  of  the  disciples  of  the  Lord  .  .  .  for  I  did 
not  think  I  could  get  so  much  profit  from  the  contents 
of  books  as  from  the  utterances  of  a  living  and  abiding 
voice. ' ' 

In  this  period  the  gospel  was  preached  in  Jerusalem, 
throughout  Palestine  and  carried  into  the  cities  of  Asia 
Minor  and  to  Rome  itself. 

THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  BOOKS 

The  Book  Witnesses. — When  the  churches  began  to 
be  numerous  and  Christianity  to  take  wider  and  wider  ranges 
the  necessity  for  a  permanent  record  of  those  things  be- 
lieved in  and  taught  about  the  Christ  became  very  apparent. 
The  first  witnesses  could  not  go  everywhere ;  they  were  also 
departing  out  of  this  world.  There  was  reason  also  why 
the  Word  should  be  guarded  from  error  and  transmitted  in 
its  purity  to  later  generations.  Irenaeus  of  Lyons,  born  in 
Smyrna — also  a  disciple  of  Polycarp  who  was  a  disciple  of 
John  the  Apostle — writes,  *' Matthew  then  published  his 
gospel  among  the  Hebrews  in  their  own  language.  .  .  . 
Mark  the  disciple  and  interpreter  of  Peter  also  transmitted 
to  us  in  writing  those  things  which  Peter  had  prepared ;  and 
Luke  the  attendant  of  Paul  recorded  in  a  book  the  gospel 
which  Paul  had  declared.  Afterwards  John,  the  disciple  of 
the  Lord,  published  his  gospel  while  staying  at  Ephesus  in 
Asia." 

The  Contents  of  the  New  Testament. — There  are 


The  Church  in  the  Books  95 

twenty-seven  books ;  five  historical ;  twenty-one  epistles ;  one 
Apocalypse.  "  They  consist  of  records  of  the  life,  death  and 
resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,  a  historical  account  of  the  early 
churches  and  of  the  missionary  work  of  some  of  their  leaders  ; 
a  number  of  letters  to  churches  and  individual  persons,  treat- 
ing of  the  profoundest  questions  of  religious  truth,  but  also 
devoting  much  attention  to  practical  duties  and  Christian 
administration,  and  abounding  in  expressions  of  affectionate 
interest ;  and  lastly  standing  quite  by  itself,  the  Apocalypse, 
with  its  mysteries  of  strange  symbolism." 

Time  of  Writing. — These  books  were  not  all  written  at 
the  same  time  and  it  was  many  years  before  they  were 
gathered  in  one  volume  as  we  now  have  them.  The  actual 
time  of  writing  extended  over  a  period  from  about  50-100 
A.  D.  with  probably  a  majority  of  the  books  written  between 
50  and  70  A.  D.,  within  the  comparatively  short  period  of 
about  thirty-five  years  after  the  death  of  Christ. 

Order  of  the  Books. — They  are  not  placed — in  our  New 
Testament — in  the  order  of  their  composition.  A  number 
of  epistles  were  written  before  the  gospels  and  one  of  the 
gospels,  John's,  was  not  written  until  near  the  close  of  the  first 
century.  The  order  in  the  New  Testament  is  that  of  histor- 
ical happening  and  importance. 

The  Five  Historical  Books. — ^Matthew,  Mark,  Luke, 
John,  Acts.  They  were  written  between  60  and  70  a.  d.  with 
the  exception  of  John  which  was  written  near  the  close  of  the 
first  century. 

The  four  gospels  rightly  take  the  first  place  in  our  New 
Testament.  *'  They  narrate  events  that  precede  the  epistles; 
and  in  those  events  they  give  the  key  to  all  that  follows  show- 
ing the  root  and  the  foundation  of  the  new  Christian  life,  the 
development  of  which  is  illustrated  in  the  epistles.  The 
supreme  glory  of  the  gospels  comes  from  their  subject.  Never 
before  had  writers  such  a  theme. '  *  While  Paul's  epistles  may 
take  precedence  in  time  and  in  being  read  in  the  churches, 
it  is  quite  certain  that  Matthew,  Mark  and  Luke  were  re- 
garded as  the  first  authoritative  writings  and  constituted 


96         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


the  first  New  Testament,  with  John's  gospel  placed  next  to 
them  when  it  was  written. 

The  first  three  gospels  are  known  as  the  Synoptic  Gospels. 
There  is  in  them  a  remarkable  amount  of  similarity  in  sub- 
stance, general  arrangement  and  order  of  their  narratives. 
Yet  each  one  has  a  distinct  purpose  in  view.  Matthew  is 
seeking  to  impress  the  fact  upon  his  hearers  that  Jesus  is  the 
Messiah  predicted  in  the  Old  Testament ;  about  sixty-five 
passages  are  quoted  from  the  Jewish  Scriptures  to  prove  that 
Jesus  is  the  fulfillment  of  law,  the  prophecy  and  hope  of 
Israel.  Mark  has  evidently  in  mind  the  Romans.  No 
genealogy  is  given  as  none  was  needed.  The  idea  is  divine 
power  ministering  to  men  and  at  the  same  time  attesting 
Christ's  claim  as  the  Son  of  God  and  Lord  of  the  world. 
There  is  an  energetic  brevity  and  rapidity  of  movement. 
Luke  had  in  mind  the  Greeks.  The  genealogy  of  Christ  is 
traced  to  Adam,  to  connect  Him  with  the  whole  race  and 
make  Him  the  Saviour  of  both  Jew  and  Gentile.  The 
world-wide  character  of  Christianity  is  vividly  portrayed. 
Christ  is  the  divine  Saviour  of  all  men.  There  are  many 
problems  in  regard  to  these  gospels  of  which  lack  of  space 
here  forbids  the  discussion.  Scholars  to-day  are  at  work 
upon  the  questions  as  to  the  relation  of  the  Hebrew  gospel 
by  Matthew,  mentioned  by  Papias,  and  the  Matthew 
Greek  gospel,  the  relation  of  Matthew  and  Luke  to  Mark 
and  their  differences  and  resemblances.  The  question  be- 
hind all,  however,  is  the  truthfulness  in  the  reporting  of  the 
facts  by  the  Synoptic  Gospels.  In  regard  to  this  there  is  a 
general  agreement  amongst  scholars,  ■'  that  the  subject 
matter  of  these  gospels  is  marked  by  traits  which  show  that 
the  information  proceeds  direct  from  those  who  have  lived 
amid  the  surroundings  described.  The  characteristics  of 
Jewish  life  and  thought  in  Palestine  in  the  first  half  of  the 
first  century  of  our  era  are  reflected  in  the  narrative  with  a 
truth  which  could  not  have  been  otherwise  imparted.  .  ,  . 
Placed  as  the  evangelists  were  when  they  wrote,  they  could 
not  have  accurately  reproduced  the  features  of  an  age  which 


The  Church  in  the  Books  97 

had  passed  away,  as  they  are  found  to  have  done,  except 
from  immediate  knowledge  of  their  own,  the  reports  of  those 
who  possessed  it,  or  the  use  of  documents  based  on  it." 
Archaeological  investigations  and  searching  inquiries  into  the 
political,  social  and  religious  circumstances  of  the  times  are 
showing  in  a  clear  light  the  truthfulness  of  these  gospels  to 
the  facts. 

John's  gospel,  written  some  time  after  the  first  three  in 
the  gospel  story  ''told  from  a  point  of  view  acquired 
through  long  reflection  and  experience  and  through  sharing 
in  the  ever  widening  work  and  conflicts  of  the  Church." 
The  purpose  is  clearly  stated  in  John  20:  30,  31,  "And 
many  other  signs  truly  did  Jesus  in  the  presence  of  His 
disciples,  which  are  not  written  in  this  book,  but  these  are 
written  that  ye  might  believe  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the 
Son  of  God ;  and  that  believing  ye  might  have  life  through 
His  name."  The  great  subject  of  this  book  is  a  Divine 
Being  who  became  flesh  and  dwelt  amongst  men.  Jesus  is 
the  Messiah  from  the  first.  "  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word 
and  the  Word  was  with  God  and  the  Word  was  God  " 
(John  I  :  i).  Another  portion  of  the  ministry  is  described 
from  that  in  the  Synoptic  Gospels  but  the  fundamental 
teaching  is  the  same.  Here  again  scholars,  in  endeavouring 
to  account  for  differences  and  resemblances  from  the  other 
gospels,  raise  certain  problems  which  have  not  yet  been 
made  clear  but  the  historical  probability  in  regard  to  the 
facts  rests  upon  a  sure  foundation.  John  the  Apostle,  to 
whose  authorship  this  gospel  is  ascribed,  ''had  the  im- 
mediate knowledge  of  the  facts  and  a  wide  and  large  con- 
ception of  their  significance." 

The  Acts  is  the  fifth  historical  book  and  properly  has  its 
place  next  to  the  gospels  in  the  New  Testament.  The 
author  is  Luke  a  companion  of  Paul  and  there  is  here  told 
in  a  very  graphic  way  how,  beginning  at  Jerusalem,  the 
gospel  found  its  way  into  the  cities  of  Palestine,  Syria, 
Asia  Minor,  Greece  and  finally  came  to  Rome  itself. 

The  Twenty-one  Epistles. — The  thirteen  letters  of 


98         Studies  in  Early  Church  History 

Paul  take  first  place  and  the  chief  of  them  have  never  been 
disputed  as  his  productions.  They  were  called  forth  by  the 
necessity  he  found  in  his  wide  field  to  communicate  with  the 
churches  which  he  had  organized. 

They  were  written  between  the  years  50-67  a.  d. 

Paul's  Epistles  naturally  divide  themselves  into  four 
groups.  I.  First  and  Second  Thessalonians.  They  illus- 
trate the  Apostle's  earlier  missionary  instruction  to  his 
converts — hence  the  name,  **  Missionary  Epistles."  They 
treat  of  but  one  doctrinal  subject — the  Second  Coming  of 
Christo  Emphasis  is  laid,  however,  upon  the  divinity  of 
Christ  who  is  referred  to  as,  ''The  Lord"  "Our  Lord" 
about  twenty-five  times.  2.  Galatians,  First  and  Second 
Corinthians,  Romans.  We  here  find  that  Christianity  is 
being  defined  and  differentiated  from  Judaism  and  Heathen- 
ism. It  is  a  period  of  conflict.  The  great  question  dis- 
cussed is  "on  what  terms  does  God  save  men?"  Paul 
maintains  that  the  sole  basis  of  salvation  is  the  grace  of  God 
through  Jesus  Christ  to  be  appropriated  by  faith  on  the  part 
of  man.  3.  Colossians,  Philemon,  Ephesians,  Philippians, 
The  great  question  discussed  here  is,  "What  is  the  nature, 
the  rank,  the  dignity  of  the  Mediator  of  salvation  ?  "  "Is 
He  one  of  a  series  of  Saviours  or  does  He  stand  supreme  and 
solitary  ?  "  Other  matters  are  discussed  but  this  is  the  great 
question.  The  reason  for  raising  the  question  was  the 
development  of  certain  false  religious  beliefs.  Paul  is  in  no 
doubt  as  to  the  supremacy  of  Christ.  He  is  the  supreme 
divine  Saviour  (Colossians  i:  15-20;  Ephesians  i:  10, 
20-23;  Philippians  2:  5-1 1).  This  question  has  the  strong 
attention  of  men  to-day.  4.  First  Timothy,  Titus,  Second 
Timothy.  It  is  generally  agreed  among  scholars  that  no 
place  can  be  found  for  the  writing  of  these  epistles  in  the 
period  covered  by  Luke  in  his  narrative  in  the  Acts.  Many 
eminent  scholars  hold,  however,  agreeing  with  the  tradition 
of  the  church,  that  Paul  was  released  from  his  first  im- 
prisonment and  that  it  was  in  the  interval  between  that  and 
his  second  imprisonment  and   death  that  he  wrote  these 


The  Church  in  the  Books  99 

letters.  Eusebius  says  (H.  E.  2  :  22-2)  that  Paul  accord- 
ing to  tradition  went  forth  upon  a  missionary  tour  after  his 
release  from  his  first  imprisonment  and  that  he  ended  his 
life  by  martyrdom  under  Nero.  He  also  speaks  of  his 
writing  in  this  second  imprisonment  the  Second  Epistle  to 
Timothy. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  has  a  place  by  itself.  It  was 
ascribed  to  Paul  very  early  but  by  many  scholars  its  author- 
ship is  considered  to  be  by  some  very  able  evangelical  un- 
known author.  It  upholds  the  supremacy  of  Christ  over 
prophets,  angels,  Moses  and  the  old  covenant. 

The  seven  other  epistles,  John  three,  Peter  two,  James 
one,  Jude  one,  are  called  ''  Catholic  "  in  the  sense  of  being 
circular  letters  and  are  intended  for  more  than  one  church. 
They  represent  different  modes  of  apprehending  our  Lord  and 
His  work  and  of  building  up  the  Christian  faith.  Some  of 
these  were  the  last  books  to  be  received  into  the  canon  and 
in  the  case  of  Second  Peter  there  has  been  a  searching  ex- 
amination of  its  credentials  in  regard  to  its  coming  from 
Peter. 

The  Apocalypse. — The  main  theme  of  this  book  is  the 
triumph  of  Christ,  pictorially  set  forth  as  the  glorious  con- 
summation of  great  struggles  and  marvellous  events.  Its 
unity  has  recently  been  assailed  but  the  attempts  to  disin- 
tegrate it  have  not  met  with  general  acceptance.  It  was 
written  by  John  the  apostle,  in  the  first  century  in  the  midst 
of  great  persecution;  it  was  of  great  encouragement  and 
comfort  to  the  early  Christians. 

THE  USE  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  BOOKS 

In  the  Churches. — The  New  Testament  writings  began 
to  be  extensively  used,  as  soon  as  they  were  available,  in  the 
churches.  Paul  requests  that  his  letters  be  read  to  the  con- 
gregations (i  Thessalonians  5:  27;  Colossians  4  :  16)  to 
which  they  were  sent  and  that  they  be  exchanged  for  letters 
written  to  other  churches  which  be  likewise  publicly  read. 


loo       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


The  gospels  also  were  used  in  written  form,  taking  rank  in 
value  above  all  the  other  writings. 

The  manuscripts  were  widely  scattered  over  the  Roman 
empire  and  preserved  in  the  church  treasure  book  chests. 
As  one  manuscript,  of  a  gospel  or  epistle,  could  not  serve 
all  the  churches  there  speedily  came  a  demand  for  copies 
which  was  supplied  by  the  scribes,  who  made  the  transcrib- 
ing of  manuscripts  their  business.  Great  care  was  exercised 
in  this  work  of  copying  and  it  is  quite  evident  from  the 
manuscripts  we  now  have,  and  from  notices  in  early  Chris- 
tian writings,  that,  from  an  early  date,  there  was  little  or  no 
deviation  from  certain  well  known  forms.  There  were  many 
other  Christian  writings  in  those  early  times  which  sought 
for  the  same  canonical  standing,  but  there  was  a  very  care- 
ful sifting  process  exercised  which  excluded  them  from  the 
list  of  the  new  sacred  books.  In  collecting  the  manuscripts, 
and  copies  of  them,  each  church  sought  for  those  which 
represented  most  closely  the  facts  about  Christ  and  the 
apostolic  teachings.  We  have  to-day  in  our  New  Testament 
these  books. 

By  Early  Christian  Writers. — Writings  which  are  of 
great  weight  and  importance  soon  begin  to  impress  them- 
selves upon  contemporary  literature.  The  New  Testament 
is  no  exception  to  this  rule.  We  find  many  writers,  of  the 
first  three  centuries,  referring  to  the  facts  and  doctrines  set 
forth  in  it,  and  making  quotations  from  and  translations  of 
its  books.  It  is  by  means  of  these  mentions  of  early  writers 
that  we  have  independent  testimony  of  the  way  in  which 
they  were  looked  upon  and  are  able  to  see  how  far  back  their 
existence  can  be  traced,  the  use  that  was  made  of  them  and 
the  truthfulness  of  the  manuscripts  which  we  now  possess. 

Only  a  few  of  the  writers — who  bear  independent  testi- 
mony to  the  authenticity  of  the  New  Testament  books — can 
be  mentioned  here  and  that  in  the  briefest  way. 

I.  Some  writers  of  the  Sub- Apostolic  Age  or  "the 
generation  immediately  following  that  of  the  Apostles." 


The  Church  in  the  Books  loi 


Clement  of  Rome  was  born  about  30  and  died  about  95 
A.  D.  He  was  pastor  of  the  church  in  Rome  and  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Clement  mentioned  by  Paul  in  Philippians 
(4  :  3).  His  life  period  was  passed  in  this  most  important 
age  of  the  Christian  church.  His  pastorate  in  Rome  was 
contemporaneous  with  that  of  John  the  Apostle  in  Ephesus. 
Amongst  his  writings  there  is  extant  an  Epistle  to  the  Co- 
rinthians— which  can  be  bought  in  an  English  translation. 
"It  is  saturated  with  the  language  of  the  New  Testament. 
It  contains  the  words  of  Peter,  James,  John  and  Luke.  It 
has  passages  based  upon  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Romans, 
Corinthians,  Thessalonians,  Ephesians,  Timothy,  Titus,  of 
James,  of  Peter,  to  the  Hebrews  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. ' ' 

Ignatius,  pastor  or  bishop  of  the  church  in  Antioch  as 
early  as  about  69  a.  d.  He  watched  over  his  flock  during 
the  persecutions  of  Domitian,  but  sent  to  Rome  under  Trajan, 
he  was  there  condemned  to  be  thrown  to  the  wild  beasts  in 
the  Roman  amphitheatre.  The  date  of  his  death  is  107  a,  d. 
or  a  little  later.  He  wrote  a  number  of  epistles.  They  are 
addressed  to  the  Romans,  to  Polycarp  and  to  some  of  the 
Asiatic  churches.  "There  are  in  these  epistles  several 
allusions  to  the  life  of  Christ  which  are  recorded  in  our 
gospels  as  well  as  parallelisms  of  expressions  with  them." 
"In  one  Epistle  (Philad.  V)  his  language  suggests  the  idea 
that  he  is  thinking  of  the  gospel  as  embodied  in  a  written 
form ;  for  he  speaks  of  it  as  something  to  which  Christians 
could,  as  it  were,  turn,  and  refers  in  the  same  context  to  the 
Prophets."  In  another  epistle  (Smyrn.  Ill)  he  asserts  the 
verity  of  Christ's  corporeal  nature  after  His  resurrection, 
seemingly  quoting  from  Luke  24  :  36-39  where  the  words 
are  similar  in  substance  and  in  form. 

Polycarp  was  pastor  or  bishop  of  Smyrna.  He  was  bom 
soon  after  the  middle  of  the  first  century  and  was  martyred 
about  the  year  156  a.  d.  When  he  was  urged  to  give  up 
Christ  by  the  Roman  judge,  who  finally  condemned  him  to 
be  burned  to  death,  he  said,  "Eighty  and  six  years  have  I 
served  Him,  and  He  never  did  me  any  wrong :   how  can  I 


102       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


blaspheme  my  King  and  my  Saviour?"  Poly  carp  was  a 
disciple  of  John  the  Apostle,  who  was  bishop  of  Ephesus. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  epistles  which  have  all  disappeared 
from  sight,  but  one.  This  one  is  now  printed  in  an  English 
translation.  In  it  '<he  states  the  fact  of  our  Lord's  resur- 
rection and  ascension  to  glory.  He  refers  to  the  teachings 
of  the  Lord  and  His  apostles.  He  refers  also  to  the  '  Ora- 
cles '  of  our  Lord,  which  was  the  word  for  the  written  gos- 
pels. He  quotes  the  language  of  Peter,  of  Paul,  of  Matthew 
and  of  John." 

2.     Some  writers  of  the  second  century. 

Papias,  a  disciple  of  Polycarp,  was  born  about  74  a.  d. 
and  suffered  martyrdom  about  163  a.  d.  He  was  bishop 
of  Hierapolis  (mentioned  by  Paul  in  Colossians  4  :  13).  He 
was  a  friend  and  disciple  of  Polycarp  and  he  had  conversed 
with  men  of  an  older  generation  than  his  who  could  give 
first  hand  information  as  to  what  the  oral  teaching  of  the 
apostles  was.  Many  of  the  intimate  friends  of  the  apostles 
were  known  to  him.  He  wrote  a  large  work,  ''Interpreta- 
tions of  the  Sayings  of  the  Lord,"  which  has  unfortunately 
disappeared,  but  there  are  quite  a  number  of  quotations  from 
it  preserved  in  the  works  of  Irenaeus  and  Eusebius.  Papias 
tells  us  that  IVIark  was  a  companion  of  Peter  and  that  he 
wrote  a  gospel.  He  cannot  have  been  ignorant  of  our 
canonical  Matthew,  for  he  speaks  of  Matthew's  Hebrew  Gos- 
pel and  its  interpreters,  and  he  seems  also  to  have  known 
the  fourth  gospel  (c.  110-125  a.  d.  ).  It  has  also  been 
pointed  out  that  Papias' s  preface  is  written  in  obvious 
imitation  of  Luke  (i  :  1-4).  He  uses  material  from  the 
gospels  and  quotes  from  the  early  Epistle  of  John  and  one 
of  the  Epistles  of  Peter.  He  knew  the  Book  of  Revelation 
and  maintained  it  was  divinely  inspired.  He  also  spoke  of 
the  value  of  oral  tradition  (see  quotation  under  section  '^  Eye 
"Witnesses")  and  of  the  care  he  took  to  be  sure  of  every- 
thing he  stated  that  it  might  be  in  accord  with  that  ''given 
from  the  Lord  to  the  Faith,  and  who  are  sprung  from  the 
truth  itself."     "The  Fragment  of  Papias's  Expositions  of 


The  Church  in  the  Books  103 

the  Oracles  of  the  Lord,"  pubhshed  by  De  Boor,  states  that 
some  of  those  brought  to  life  by  Jesus  lived  until  the  time 
of  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  His  witnessing  to  the  truth  of 
the  New  Testament  books  is  of  the  greatest  value. 

Between  Papias's  youth  and  old  age  dependence  on  oral 
tradition  has  given  place  to  books. 

Justin  Martyr,  a  very  learned  man,  was  teaching  as  a 
Christian  philosopher  in  Ephesus  soon  after  135  a.  d.  His 
principal  works  are  his  *'  First  and  Second  Apologies  "  and 
<<  Dialogue  with  Trypho  the  Jew."  They  were  composed 
about  150  A.  D.  His  chief  authorities  in  setting  forth  the 
''Life  and  Teachings  of  our  Lord"  are  the  gospels  as  we 
have  them  in  the  New  Testament.  The  principal  features  of 
the  Synoptics  are  directly  and  fully  reproduced  and  the  con- 
ception of  Christ  as  the  Logos,  as  we  find  it  in  John's  gos- 
pel, holds  a  prominent  place  in  Justin's  works. 

As  the  apostles  had  all  passed  away  and  also  about  all  of 
their  immediate  successors  the  reliance  is  now  wholly  upon 
the  written  gospels. 

Tatian,  a  pupil  of  Justin  Martyr,  made  a  Harmony  of  the 
Four  Gospels  ("  Diatessaron  ")  ;  the  discovery  of  which  for- 
ever settled  the  question  in  regard  to  the  use  of  our  four 
gospels  by  early  Christian  churches  and  writers.  This  ''  Har- 
mony "  is  made  up  of  our  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke  and  John. 

Irenseus  (b.  135  a.  D.-d.  202  a.  d.),  pastor  or  bishop  of 
the  church  of  Lyons,  takes  the  next  step  ''  in  leading  to  the 
exclusive  use  of  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke  and  John  and  treat- 
ment of  the  evangehst's  own  language  as  inspired."  (See 
quotation  from  Irenasus  under  section,  "Book  Witnesses.") 
He  makes  in  his  known  works  (174-189  a.  d.)  "  about  twelve 
hundred  references  to  the  New  Testament.  Of  this  number 
four  hundred  are  to  the  gospels  ;  he  makes  eighty  refer- 
ences to  the  gospel  of  John  alone."  He  speaks  of  the  Book 
of  Revelation  as  "  authentic  on  the  authority  of  '  those  who 
saw  John  face  to  face  '  and  then  tells  us  that  the  Revelation 
was  seen  not  long  ago,  but  almost  in  our  own  generation, 
towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Domitian." 


104       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


In  Iren^us  and  the  later  writers  which  follow  we  note 
how  very  numerous  are  the  quotations  from  the  gospels  and 
other  New  Testament  books  showing  how  great  is  the  confi- 
dence in  their  truthfulness,  since  the  apostles  and  their  im- 
mediate successors  have  passed  away  and  the  Oral  Age  has 
been  superseded. 

3.  Some  writers  whose  lives  reach  over  into  the  third 
century  and  later. 

Tertullian  of  Carthage  in  Africa  (b.  150-d.  230  a.  d.) 
was  about  forty  years  of  age  when  he  was  converted.  His 
father,  a  Roman  centurion,  gave  him  a  splendid  education. 
He  entered  the  legal  profession.  He  was  a  deep  thinker 
and  a  voluminous  writer.  He  makes  twenty-five  hundred 
references  to  the  New  Testament.  Of  these  seven  hundred  are 
to  the  four  gospels.  He  quotes  from  every  chapter  in  ]\Iat- 
thew,  Luke  and  John.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce  the 
phrase  "  New  Testament"  and  the  first  of  the  fathers  who 
wrote  in  Latin. 

Clement  of  Alexandria  was  born  about  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  and  died  in  Alexandria  about  215  a.  d.  He 
was  an  extensive  traveller  and  early  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  philosophy  becoming  a  proficient  in  the  Stoic  and 
Platonic  philosophies.  He  was  converted  to  Christianity 
through  the  influence  of  Pantsenus,  master  of  the  Christian 
school  at  Alexandria,  whom  he  succeeded.  He  was  a  man 
of  profound  learning  and  well  able  to  sift  carefully  and  im- 
partially the  evidence  in  regard  to  the  New  Testament ;  yet 
we  find  him,  within  a  hundred  years  after  the  death  of  the 
Apostles  and  in  an  age  when  it  was  possible  to  trace  the 
Christian  history  to  its  beginnings,  accepting  as  genuine  and 
authentic  our  four  gospels.  "  He  mentions  Matthew,  Mark, 
Luke  and  John  by  name,  and  places  them  in  the  order 
named.  He  makes  three  hundred  and  twenty  references  to 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament  in  his  works,  which  we 
have. 

Origen  (b.  i86-d.  253  a.  d.)  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt. 
He  was  a  man  of  profound  learning  and  thoroughly  versed 


The  Church  in  the  Books  105 


in  Greek  philosophy  and  the  Scriptures.  He  was  the 
master  of  a  Christian  school  in  his  city.  In  the  Decian 
persecution  he  was  subjected  to  exquisite  torture  of  his 
body,  but  from  his  prison  he  wrote  a  letter  of  exhortation 
and  encouragement  to  his  fellow  sufferers.  **  The  writings 
of  Origen  were  of  many  kinds,  critical,  philosophic,  polemic 
and  practical."  His  works  on  the  Scriptures,  and  defence 
of  them,  cover  more  ground  than  those  of  any  other  ancient 
interpreter.  '<His  most  celebrated  work  is  his  Apology 
for  Christianity  contained  in  the  eight  books  '  Against 
Celsus.'  This  is  regarded  as  the  most  complete  defence  of 
the  Christian  religion  that  has  come  down  to  us  from  the 
Ante-Nicene  age."  The  testimony  of  Origen  confirms  the 
evidence  of  the  preceding  period — within  which,  indeed, 
half  his  life  fell — as  to  the  New  Testament  writings  about 
which  there  was  practical  universal  agreement  in  the  Greek 
speaking  and  Latin  speaking  church. 

Eusebius  (b.  265-d.  340  a.  d.)  who  is  called  The  Father 
of  Ecclesiastical  History.  He  studied  in  Antioch.  He  was 
master  of  a  Christian  school  in  Csesarea  and  later  bishop 
of  the  church  there.  He  was  persecuted  for  his  faith  and 
imprisoned  under  Diocletian.  Besides  his  Ecclesiastical 
History  from  which  we  get  much  information  in  regard  to 
our  New  Testament  books  and  the  growth  and  expansion  of 
the  Christian  church,  he  was  a  voluminous  writer  upon  the 
Scriptures.  He  made  a  concordance  of  the  four  gospels  and 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
Isaiah,  the  Psalms,  etc.  He  also  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Fulfillment  of  Christ's  Prophecies"  and  many  other  works. 

There  were  many  other  writings  and  writers  not  mentioned 
in  this  list  bearing  testimony  to  the  authenticity  of  the  New 
Testament  books. 

The  Canon. — This  word  means  pattern.  It  is  used  in 
the  Christian  church  for  the  rule  of  faith  and  life.  Since  the 
time  of  Origen  it  has  been  applied  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  of 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments  as  being  the  recognized 
authority  and  court  of  appeal  in  regard  to  the  Christian  faith 


lo6       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


and  practice.  The  application  of  the  term  involves  church 
recognition  that  the  Scriptures  are  separated  from  all  other 
literature  in  virtue  of  the  authority  that  is  lodged  in  them. 

The  New  Testament  canon.  About  the  principal  books 
and  the  large  majority  of  the  whole  there  was  never  any 
discussion ;  they  were  accepted  from  the  first.  About  Second 
Peter,  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  one  or  two  others 
there  was  some  discussion  before  they  were  finally  given 
their  placCc  There  were  other  books  which  claimed  a  place 
in  the  canon  but  their  claims  were  finally  rejected. 

The  criterion  from  the  first  was  Apostolicity,  immediate, 
or  all  but  immediate  connection  with  the  apostles.  Only 
those  books  were  admitted  to  the  canon  which  could  be  re- 
garded as  the  most  faithful  records  of  the  work  of  Christ 
and  His  apostles  and  as  the  suitable  foundation  of  Christian 
preaching.  These  books  we  trace  back  through  the  in- 
dependent testimony  of  able  men  who  lived  in  all  parts  of 
the  Roman  Empire.  We  see  in  the  writings  of  these  men 
how  great  the  agreement  was  upon  this  subject.  "This 
agreement  rested  in  the  belief  that  the  New  Testament 
writings  were  the  authentic  embodiments  of  the  witness  and 
teaching  of  Christ  and  His  apostles.'' 

The  history  of  the  canon  has  been  divided,  by  one  writer, 
into  three  periods:  i.  70-170  a.  d.  during  which  the 
evidence — while  in  some  respects  fragmentary  owing  to  the 
disappearance  of  many  ancient  works — is  of  wide  range, 
direct,  uniforni  and  comprehensive.  2.  170-303  during 
which  the  available  evidence  is  largely  augmented  and  the 
consciousness  of  a  collection  of  sacred  books  becomes  more 
distinct.  3.  303-397  a.  d.  during  which  the  canon 
formed  the  subject  of  deliberation  and  decree  at  great 
councils  of  the  church. 

In  303  during  the  persecution  of  the  Emperor  Diocletian, 
the  sacred  books  were  sought  out  as  special  objects  for 
destruction. 

Early  manuscripts.  When  the  Emperor  Constantine  came 
to  the  throne  and  Christianity  became,  through  his  decree, 


The  Church  in  the  Books  107 


the  official  religion  of  the  empire  he  ordered,  in  330  a.  d., 
Eusebius — "The  Father  of  Ecclesiastical  History"  and 
who  had  proved  his  ability  for  the  task  in  his  "  Hexapla  " 
— to  have  made,  under  his  direction,  fifty  magnificent 
volumes — each  one  to  contain  the  books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  in  the  Greek  tongue.  These  Bibles  were 
made  at  the  expense  of  the  royal  treasury.  It  is  thought  that 
the  Codex  Sinaiticus  (the  finding  of  which  by  Tischendorf 
reads  like  a  romance)  is  one  of  these  copies.  This  manu- 
script with  the  Codex  Alexandrinus  and  the  Codex 
Vaticanus,  the  three  oldest  and  best  preserved  manuscripts 
which  we  have,  were  not  available  and  could  not  be  used 
by  the  translators  of  the  King  James  version,  but  the  differ- 
ences between  them  and  the  hundreds  of  manuscripts  used 
by  the  translators  of  that  version  are  unimportant.  This 
shows  the  great  care  which  has  been  exercised  through  the 
centuries  and  from  ^he  beginning  in  transcribing  the  sacred 
books. 

Versions.  There  were  many  versions  made  in  different 
languages,  which  extend  back  to  the  second  century.  The 
history  of  these  has  an  important  bearing  upon  the  faithful- 
ness with  which  this  story  of  the  Christ  has  been  transmitted 
to  us,  but  even  the  partial  telling  of  it  would  take  another 
chapter.  Enough — it  may  be — has  been  set  down  here, 
though  only  in  a  condensed  and  exceedingly  brief  form,  to 
show  how  we  have  received  our  New  Testament  and  its 
authenticity. 

At  any  time  the  discovery  of  ancient  manuscripts,  now 
hidden  away  in  some  old  library,  may  shed  new  and  un- 
expected light  upon  the  making  of  our  New  Testament. 


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QUESTIONS 

What  can  be  said  in  regard  to  the  first  written  documents? 
What  appeal  was  made  to  them  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the 
transition  period?  The  eye  and  ear  witnesses?  How  did  the 
New  Testament  books  come  to  be  written  ?  Give  the  contents 
of  the  New  Testament,  the  time  of  writing  and  the  order  of  the 
books.  What  are  the  five  historical  books?  Give,  in  order, 
the  purpose  in  the  writing  of  each  book.  How  did  Paul's 
Epistles  come  to  be  written  ?  Give  the  four  groups  and  the 
leading  thought  in  each.  How  were  the  books  used  in  the 
churches  ?  How  were  the  books  used  and  corroborated  by  the 
Christian  writers  of  the  first  three  centuries  ?  What  is  the 
testimony  of  the  writers  of  the  Sub -Apostolic  Age  ?  Clement  of 
Rome?  Ignatius?  Polycarp?  What  is  the  testimony  of  the 
writers  of  the  second  century  ?  Papias  ?  Justin  Martyr  ? 
Tatian  ?  Irenseus  ?  What  is  the  testimony  of  the  writers  of  the 
third  century?  TertuUian?  Clement?  Origen?  Eusebius? 
What  can  be  said  of  the  canon  ?  Its  formation  ?  The  three 
periods  ? 


Study  VIII 
THE  CHURCH  IN  CONTROVERSY 

CAUSES 

The  Twofold  Conflict. — In  this  study  attention  is 
called  to  the  controversy  in  which  the  church  was  engaged 
with  its  enemies  along  the  line  of  the  argumentative  reasons 
for  and  against  the  new  faith.  In  the  next  study  are  con- 
sidered some  of  the  physical  means — the  persecutions — by 
which  the  opponents  of  Christianity  sought  to  stamp  it  out 
of  existence. 

The  Fundamental  Question  at  issue  was,  "  How 
far  God,  to  save  mankind,  really  and  personally  enters  into 
human  nature ;  in  the  one  case,  into  the  human  race 
through  the  incarnation  of  the  Word  ;  in  the  other  into  the 
individual  soul  through  the  operation  of  the  Spirit." 

The  Christians  claimed  that  God  was  incarnate  in  Jesus 
Christ  and  the  sole  basis  of  salvation  is  the  grace  of  God 
through  Jesus  Christ  to  be  appropriated  by  faith  on  the  part 
of  man.  Acceptance  of  Christ  radically  changed  a  man's 
relations  to  Judaism,  heathenism  and  the  philosophy  of  the 
times  ;  the  advocates  of  which,  however,  did  not  propose  to 
have  their  claims  set  aside  without  a  struggle. 

Holiness  and  Exclusiveness. — Christianity  aimed  at 
purity  of  heart  and  holiness  of  living.  Many  of  the  heathen 
religions  not  only  allowed  but  fostered  worldly  lusts.  '*  The 
era  was  one  of  corruption  and  unblushing  vice;  the 
gospel  was  unflinching  in  its  disclosures,  stern  in  its  re- 
proofs, terrible  in  its  denunciation  of  the  wrath  of  God" 
upon  the  doers  of  evil.  The  contrast  between  a  religion 
which  denounced  evil  and  those  which  fostered  it  was  very 
marked  and  aroused  the  bitter  opposition  ot  the  latter.     It 

109 


no       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


has  been  remarked  that  if  the  old  gods  worshipped  by  the 
Romans  were  now  to  appear  upon  earth  in  human  form 
that,  with  their  intrigues,  they  would  not  be  received  into 
decent  society. 

The  exclusiveness  of  Christianity  caused  a  deep  seated 
antagonism  to  be  manifested  towards  it.  It  claimed  to  be 
the  one  religion  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  It  had  been 
declared  of  Jesus  Christ,  '*  Neither  is  there  salvation  in 
any  other  :  for  there  is  none  other  name  under  heaven  given 
among  men  whereby  we  must  be  saved"  (Acts  4:  12). 
This  assertion  was  revolutionary  to  the  last  degree  to  the 
Romans  and  Greeks  who  were  accustomed  to  the  worship 
of  many  gods  and  goddesses.  The  philosopher  would  take 
up  arms  at  once  against  a  religion  which  asserted  that  in  it 
was  absolute  and  certain  truth.  The  magistrate  would 
look  with  suspicion  and  dislike  upon  a  religion  which  did 
not  permit  its  followers  to  join  in  the  public  sacrifices  and 
offer  incense  upon  the  altar  of  a  god.  Not  to  worship  a 
deified  Caesar  was  an  act  of  treason  to  the  state. 

Unworldliness  and  Aggressiveness. — The  Roman 
and  Greek  social,  business  and  political  relations  were  so 
interwoven  with  the  heathen  religious  customs  and  habits 
of  the  times  that  Christians,  in  order  not  to  worship  the 
pagan  gods  and  goddesses,  had  often  to  withdraw  themselves 
and  stand  apart.  This  gave  rise  to  the  charges  of  their 
being  unworldly,  morose  and  haters  of  their  fellow  men. 

From  the  first  Christianity  has  pushed  its  claims  upon 
men.  It  has  been  agressively  missionary  in  its  character. 
It  would  not  consent  to  keep  still,  but  attempted  everywhere 
to  win  converts  to  itself.  It  was  this  enthusiastic  zeal  for 
bringing  men  into  its  fold  which  brought  it  into  hostile  con- 
tact with  the  Jews  immediately  after  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  and  later  on  with  the  Roman  magistrates.  The 
heathen  religions  differed  from  the  new  faith  in  that  they 
were  tolerant  and  apathetic  except  where  they  saw  they 
were  likely  to  be  overturned  by  Christianity  and  then  they 
persecuted  the  new  faith  with  a  keen  hostility. 


The  Church  in  Controversy  iii 


Jesus  Christ  foretold  the  opposition  which  would  be 
aroused  by  the  preaching  .of  the  gospel  and  prepared  His 
followers  to  meet  and  overcome  it  (John  15:  18-20; 
Matthew  5  :  11,  12,  44;  Luke  21  :  12-19J. 

THE  ANTAGONISM  OF  JUDAISM 

Principles  Involved. — The  attack  of  the  Jews  upon 
Christianity  began  with  its  founder,  Jesus  Christ,  and  re- 
sulted in  His  death  upon  the  Cross.  Long  before  the  Ro- 
mans had  learned  the  distinction  between  the  new  faith  and 
that  having  its  seat  in  Jerusalem,  the  leaders  of  the  Jews 
had  clearly  foreseen  Christianity's  radical  and  revolutionary 
tendencies.  Judaism,  at  that  time,  was  Pharisaism  and 
Pharisaism  was  Judaism.  They  were  synonymous  terms 
and  stood  for  a  formal  cut  and  dried  system  of  legal  right- 
eousness. There  was  no  heart  in  it  and  the  spiritual  life 
had  taken  its  departure.  The  Pharisaic  rules  of  religion 
were  so  many  that  it  was  impossible  to  observe  them  and 
this  gave  rise  to  hypocrisy.  The  Pharisees  were  looking  for 
a  great  Messianic  King  who  would  subdue  all  nations  and 
place  them  under  Jewish  rule.  They  had  only  contempt 
for  the  sinner.  They  were  to  be  saved  not  because  they 
were  heart  righteous  but  because  of  their  relation  to  the 
Mosaic  Law. 

Jesus  Christ  completely  shattered  the  Jewish  idea  of  a  great 
temporal  kingdom.  He  predicted  the  destruction  cf  the 
Temple  and  the  Holy  City.  He  based  salvation  upon  re- 
pentance and  heart  righteousness  and  a  proper  spiritual 
relation  to  God.  In  the  new  kingdom  which  He  preached 
the  Jew  had  no  superiority  to  the  Gentile ;  they  were  equal 
in  the  sight  of  God.  He  declared  Himself  the  fulfillment 
of  the  Prophets  and  the  Law  and  the  supreme  sacrifice  for 
sin.  He  said,  "I  am  the  resurrection  and  the  life."  He  as- 
serted that  the  new  kingdom  of  righteousness  had  come  in 
Him  and  that  the  old  must  pass  away. 

Early  Manifestations. — The  antagonism  of  Judaism, 


112       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


when  the  issue  between  the  principles  involved  was  clearly 
joined,  manifested  itself  in  many  ways.  The  Jewish  lawyers 
sought  to  entrap  and  confuse  Christ  by  sharp  practices ; 
they  asked  Him  catch  questions  in  regard  to  His  mission 
and  work  and  endeavoured  to  bring  Him  into  disrepute  with 
His  disciples  and  the  multitude.  Paul  was  followed  wher- 
ever he  went,  upon  his  missionary  tours,  by  Jewish  calum- 
niators. 

There  were  two  parties  of  Jews  with  which  the  church, 
after  the  ascension  of  Christ,  came  into  sharp  conflict. 

First,  there  were  the  Jews  who  denied  any  and  every 
claim  of  Christ  to  be  the  Messiah;  of  this  class  were  the 
rioters  who  drove  Paul  out  of  city  after  city  and  sought  to 
kill  him  in  the  Temple. 

Second,  there  were  the  Jewish  Christians  who  **  asserted 
that  their  faith  was  Judaism  with  a  new  prophet ;  that  the 
Law  of  Moses  and  Mosaic  practices  were  binding  on  Chris- 
tians as  well  as  on  unbelieving  Jews ;  that  Gentile  believers 
must  first  become  proselytes  to  Judaism  before  they  could 
become  Christians  ;  and  lastly  that  circumcision  was  the  only 
gateway  to  baptism." 

With  the  first  class  of  Jews  it  was  not  so  difficult  to  deal 
for  they  were  out  and  out  antagonists ;  but  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians,— who  still  clung  to  the  Mosaic  Law — were  constantly 
making  trouble,  not  only  amongst  the  Christian  Jews  who 
had  fully  come  out  from  the  dominion  of  the  Law  of  Moses 
and  expressed  their  faith  in  Christ,  but  also  among  the 
Christian  Gentiles  who  had  come  out  of  the  heathen  re- 
ligions. To  meet  this  condition  of  affairs  Paul  presents  his 
masterly  arguments,  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and 
Galatians,  for  justification  by  faith  in  Christ  alone. 

Li  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  we  look  right  in  upon  this 
great  controversy  and  this  epistle  should  be  read  carefully  in 
this  connection.  In  the  churches  founded  by  Paul  in 
Galatia  the  converts  at  first  did  well,  but  soon  Judaizing 
teachers  found  their  way  into  them.  They  disparaged  Paul 
and    the  gospel   he   preached.      They   declared   that   the 


The  Church  in  Controversy  113 

Mosaic  Law  was  still  binding  upon  all  Christians.  They  in- 
sisted upon  the  rite  of  circumcision.  Though  they  might 
acknowledge  Jesus  Christ  to  be  the  Messiah  they  still  looked 
for  salvation  through  the  works  of  the  Law.  It  was  a  great 
controversy,  but  Paul  proved  himself  equal  to  the  task  of 
vindicating  the  gospel  which  he  preached.  He  shows  why 
and  how  he  came  to  preach  and  that  what  he  taught  came 
through  a  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  vindicates  his 
authority,  as  an  apostle,  to  teach.  He  treats  of  the  relation 
of  Christ  to  the  Law  and  proves  that  justification  is  not 
through  the  deeds  of  the  law  but  by  faith  in  Him.  The 
Galatian  converts,  he  declares,  had  received  the  Spirit 
through  faith  and  not  through  the  law,  why  should  they 
turn  back  ?  The  Law  is  subordinate  to  faith.  The  cove- 
nant of  the  promise  of  Christ  was  before  the  Law  and  there  is 
danger  in  returning  to  the  Law.  Paul  very  practically  ex- 
horts the  Christian  believers  to  stand  fast  in  the  liberty  of 
Christ ;  this  liberty  excludes  Judaism.  While  this  conflict  is 
practically  dead  so  far  as  Judaism  is  concerned  yet  there  are 
those  still  with  us  who  try  to  buy  their  way  to  God  by  their 
good  deeds ;  for  such  Paul's  argument  of  the  way  to  salvation 
through  Jesus  Christ,  is  still  pertinent  and  makes  this  epistle 
glow  with  divine  light. 

Later  Manifestations. — The  year  70  a.  d.  marked  the 
close  of  an  old  and  the  beginning  of  a  new  and  sad  era  for 
the  Jews.  In  that  year  Jerusalem  and  its  Temple  were 
destroyed.  In  the  fearful  scenes  which  took  place  some  may 
have  remembered  that  the  Jewish  multitude  had  cried  out, 
when  Jesus  was  before  Pilate  and  he  wished  to  release  Him, 
**His  blood  be  on  us,  and  on  our  children"  (Matthew 
27  :  25).  Jesus  had  foretold  the  ruin  of  the  city  (Mat- 
thew 23:  37-39;  24)  and  had  wept  over  it  (Luke  19: 
41-44;  23  :  28-31).  With  the  fall  of  the  Holy  City  and 
Temple  it  was  now  no  longer  possible  to  keep  the  Jewish  law. 
This  was  a  powerful  argument  for  the  Christians  which  the 
Jews  were  unable  to  answer.  But  in  many  respects,  while  the 
conflict  was  practically  coming  to  an  end,  the  hatred  of  the 


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Jews  for  the  Christians  was  intensified,  henceforth  the 
Christian  in  the  eyes  of  the  Jew  was  not  merely  a  rival  but  a 
traitor,  and  the  Gentile  Christian  was  one  who  enjoyed  the 
gains  of  treason  at  the  Jew's  expense.  The  animosity  was 
intense ;  and  to  abuse  the  Christians,  or  to  stir  up  the 
heathen  to  persecute  them  was  a  delight  if  not  a  duty  to  a 
Jew.  Constantly  in  the  persecutions  we  find  the  Jews  prom- 
inent in  the  attack.  There  were  literary  attacks  also  on 
the  Jewish  side  and  these  had  to  be  met  with  the  pen.  The 
miraculous  birth  and  the  Divinity  of  Christ  had  to  be  main- 
tained against  denials  and  false  insinuations.  The  spiritual 
meaning  of  types  and  prophecies  and  the  superseding  of  the 
law  by  the  gospel  had  to  be  explained.  Christians  had  to 
make  good  their  claim  to  be  the  true  Israel  of  God.  Some 
of  the  extant  Greek  writings  of  this  type  are  the  so  called 
Epistle  of  Barnabas  (c.  80-1  lo  a.  d.),  Justin  Martyr's 
Dialogue  with  Trypho  (c.  155  a.  d.),  the  "  Deraonstratio  ad- 
versus  Judseos  "  of  Hippolytus  (c.  220  a.  d,),  and  parts  of 
Origen's  "  Contra  Celsum  "  (249  a.  d.).  Latin  writings  in 
answer  to  the  Jews  are  not  so  numerous  as  the  Greek. 

The  Christian  Apologists  were  the  defenders  of  the 
Christian  faith  in  a  literary  way,  against  both  unbelieving 
Jew  and  heathen  Gentile.  Their  work  was  first  with  the 
Jews  as  they  were  the  first  opponents  of  Christianity.  They 
carried  on  the  work  begun  by  Paul  and  the  New  Testament 
writers.  As  many  of  the  Apologists  were  converts  from 
Judaism  or  Paganism  they  had  knowledge  of  both  sides  of 
the  case.  They  answered  the  charges  made  against  the 
Christians,  their  sacred  writings,  their  mode  of  living  and 
their  doctrines.  In  the  beginning  they  wrote  after  the 
Scriptural  style  but  soon  they  branched  out  into  every 
literary  form  known  to  Paganism ;  and  in  time  they  captured 
the  literary  guns  of  their  opponents  and  turned  them  against 
them.  They  pleaded  for  a  fair  hearing  of  their  cause  and 
sought  to  show  that  Christianity  was  not  only  the  consum- 
mation of  all  that  was  good  in  Judaism  but  that  it  would 
satisfy  the  longing  of  all  hearts  after  a  true  spiritual  life. 


The  Church  in  Controversy  115 

The  Apologists  were  sensible  of  the  work  which  they  had 
to  do  and  varied  it  accordingly.  They  wrote  in  Greek  and 
in  Latin  and  the  language  used  marks,  as  it  has  been  said, 
a  fundamental  difference.  "It  is  the  difference  which  is 
summed  up  in  contrast  between  Roman  law  and  Greek 
thought.  The  instruments  of  the  Greek  Apologists  were 
reason  and  philosophy ;  those  of  the  Latin  were  rhetoric  and 
law.  The  broad  characteristics  which  distinguished  Greek 
and  Latin  literature  reappear  here.  In  the  one  case  the  ap- 
peal is  to  what  is  universal,  to  the  high  aspirations  and  deep 
thoughts  which  the  human  mind  in  its  freedom  has  any- 
where reached.  It  is  the  gospel,  rather  than  Judaism  or 
heathenism,  that  sums  up  and  satisfies  all  these.  In  the 
other  case  the  appeal  is  to  the  rights  of  the  individual,  to 
social  order,  to  common  sense,  and  to  law." 

The  Result  of  this  controversy  was  that  Judaism  fell  to 
the  rear  and  Christianity  came  to  the  front. 

THE  ANTAGONISM  OF  HEATHENISM 

It  was  with  heathenism — which  represented  so  many 
things — that  Christianity  had  its  longest  and  most  bitter 
conflict.  In  many  ways  that  contest  is  not  yet  ended.  The 
greatness  of  the  victory,  however,  which  the  church  won 
over  the  heathenism  of  the  Roman  empire  may  be  seen  in 
the  statement  of  the  points  of  difference.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  in  the  beginning  that  this  heathenism  had 
every  earthly  advantage  on  its  side  ;  the  imperial  power,  the 
philosophical  schools,  the  literary  classes,  the  social  prestige 
and  a  great  religious  system  supported  by  the  empire. 
Christianity  had  only  its  faith  in  its  Master  and  the  system 
of  truth  which  He  taught. 

The  Political  Conflict. — The  Roman  idea  of  the  state 
was  that  it  was  everything  and  the  individual  nothing.  The 
first  question  always  was,  **  Is  the  state  strong  and  prosper- 
ous? "  The  happiness  or  the  unhappiness  of  the  individual 
was  not  considered.     The  state  was  the  highest  good  and 


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everything  must  be  subordinated  to  it.  The  emperor,  as  the 
incarnation  of  the  state  and  as  the  highest  good,  must  be 
worshipped  with  divine  honours. 

Jesus  Christ  taught,  in  radical  opposition,  that  the  soul 
of  one  man  is  worth  more  than  the  whole  world.  He  put 
the  individual  first  and  the  state  second.  He  declared  that 
the  state  existed  not  to  serve  the  rulers  but  the  rulers  the 
state.  The  greatest  man  is  the  one  who  renders  the  largest 
service.  ''  Whosoever  will  be  great  among  you  let  him  be 
your  minister ;  and  whosoever  will  be  chief,  let  him  be  your 
servant." 

**The  Christian  was  loyal  to  the  state,  but  for  him  the 
kingdom  of  God  was  the  highest  good.  But  the  kingdom 
of  God  was  not  chiefly  of  this  world.  Therefore  he  could 
not  worship  the  emperor.  Here  was  a  great  and  radical 
point  of  difference  and  upon  which  neither  side  would  yield. 
The  Christians'  refusal  to  pay  divine  honours  to  the  emperor 
caused  them  to  be  put  under  the  ban  and  to  be  persecuted 
as  enemies  and  traitors  to  the  state.  For  nearly  three  hun- 
dred years  the  Roman  empire  exerted  its  strength  to  uphold, 
by  the  most  radical  means  in  its  power,  its  contentions,  but 
it  had  finally  to  yield — under  the  Emperor  Constantine — to 
the  Christians'  ideal  of  the  state." 

The  Caste  Conflict. — The  aristocratic  proclivities  of 
paganism  were  strongly  intrenched.  The  curse  of  slavery 
was  upon  the  whole  empire ;  a  slave  was  often  counted  as 
of  less  value  than  a  domestic  animal.  Here  again  Christi- 
anity taught  a  revolutionary  doctrine,  that  all  men  were  of 
one  blood  and  equally  valuable  in  the  sight  of  God.  That  a 
common  slave  should  be  ''  brother  "  to  a  haughty  aristocrat 
who  could  trace  his  lineage  back  through  a  long  line  of 
illustrious  ancestors,  was  an  unheard  of  thing.  Christ  placed 
the  emphasis  not  upon  birth,  breeding,  splendid  ancestors, 
wealth  or  position,  but  upon  purity  of  heart,  ser\nce  and 
loyalty  to  God  with  all  that  these  signified.  The  Christians 
were  declared  to  be  overturners  and  destroyers  of  a  long 
established  social  order. 


The  Church  in  Controversy  I17 


The  Religious  Conflict. — The  people  of  the  Roman 
empire  were  idolaters.  There  were  many  gods  and  goddesses 
worshipped  in  splendidly  equipped  temples.  This  worship 
was  under  the  care  of  and  provided  for  by  the  state.  The 
nations  conquered  by  the  Romans  had  their  gods  with  which 
they  did  not  interfere.  The  magnificent  images  of  the  gods 
were  everywhere  and  there  were  continual  festivals  and  sac- 
rifices in  their  honour.  Christianity  made  its  declaration 
that  these  gods  and  goddesses  were  naught,  that  they  had 
no  power  or  might,  that  there  was  only  one  true  God  and 
Jesus  Christ  His  Son,  who  ought  to  be  worshipped  (i  Co- 
rinthians 8  :  4-6).  For  this  the  early  Christians  were  called 
atheists  and  irreligious.  Jesus  had  declared  that  "  God  is  a 
Spirit :  and  they  that  worship  Him  must  worship  Him  in 
spirit  and  in  truth  "  (John  4 :  24).  Not  only  did  the  priests 
of  the  heathen  religions  declare  war  against  the  new  faith, 
but  the  makers  of  shrines  and  images  of  the  gods  (Acts  1 9  : 
24-29)  were  also  up  in  arms  against  it. 

The  Blood  Revenge  Conflict. — Blood  revenge  was 
looked  upon  as  the  sacred  and  imperative  duty  of  the 
nearest  of  kin.  A  man  was  under  obligations  to  resent 
injuries  to  himself  and  his  family.  To  the  Roman  it  was  a 
strange  doctrine  taught  by  the  teachers  who  followed  Christ 
that  a  man  should  forgive  his  enemies  and  do  good  to  those 
who  despitefully  used  him.  The  meekness  and  patience  of 
Christians  in  the  conflict,  in  which  they  were  seemingly 
getting  the  worst  of  it,  was  a  thing  hard  to  be  understood 
by  the  Romans. 

The  Unending  Conflict  with  the  evil  in  men's  hearts 
was  the  most  difficult  of  all  in  which  to  win  for  righteous- 
ness and  God.  It  is  to  this  contest  that  Paul  refers  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  (i  i  18-23)  and  in  which  he  declares 
*'  That  the  wrath  of  God  is  revealed  from  heaven  against  all 
ungodliness  and  unrighteousness  of  men."  Sensuality,  with 
a  host  of  attendant  evils,  had  intrenched  itself  in  the  worship 
of  the  temples  and  groves — as  the  notorious  one  of  Daphne 
at  Antioch — and  surrounded  itself  with  every  beautiful  thing 


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to  lure  men  to  their  destruction.  This  evil  in  men's  hearts 
broke  out  in  the  church  and  had  there  to  be  dealt  with  by 
Paul,  as  seen  in  his  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  ( i  Corinthians 

5-7). 

The  Battle  of  the  Ideals  of  heathenism  and  Christianity 
was  a  strenuous  one.  From  the  very  efforts  of  the  Christians 
to  promote  purity  of  heart,  righteousness  of  conduct,  indi- 
vidual freedom  in  the  state,  right  equahty  between  man  and 
man  and  proper  worship  of  God,  they  were  branded  as 
atheists,  as  enemies  of  the  state,  as  enemies  of  the  whole 
human  race  and  deserving,  m  the  eyes  of  the  law,  of  torture 
and  death.  Such  was  the  bitter  struggle  for  supremacy,  of 
the  great  political,  social  and  religious  ideals,  which  were  to 
uplift  and  bless  mankind  through  Jesus  Christ. 

DOCTRINAL  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  CON- 
TROVERSIES 

When  Christianity  was  proclaimed  the  political,  religious 
and  social  standpoints,  as  has  been  shown,  were  changed  by 
it  and  this  made  it  necessary  to  readjust  the  old  to  new  lines 
of  thought.  It  was  in  this  readjustment  process  that  the 
great  doctrinal,  literary  and  philosophical  controversies 
arose. 

There  were  three  parties :  i .  There  were  the  strong  ad- 
vocates of  the  old  order  of  things,  who  put  forth  every  effort 
to  preserve  it.  2.  There  were  the  believers  and  promoters 
of  the  new  faith  and  way,  who  could  see  no  good  in  the  old. 
3.  There  were  those  who  strove  to  mix  the  old  with  the 
new.  Then  in  each  of  these  three  parties  there  were  the 
radicals  and  the  conservatives. 

Only  a  few  of  these  controversies  can  be  considered — for 
lack  of  space — in  this  connection.  They  were  all  essentially 
literary,  in  that  the  arguments  pro  and  con  were  reduced  to 
writing  and  carefully  wrought  out  by  masters  of  the  craft. 
Some  of  these  writings  we  have  in  the  original  language  in 
which  they  were  written,  some  are  in  translations,  some  are 


The  Church  in  Controversy  1 19 

in  quotations,  of  others  only  the  names  and  titles  have  been 
preserved  and  many  have  probably  perished. 

Doctrinal  Controversies. — These  arose  over  differing 
conceptions  of  the  truth  in  regard  to  God,  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Holy  Spirit,  man,  and  their  relations  to  each  other  and  the 
world. 

Ebionism. — This  was  a  mixture  of  Christianity  and 
Judaism.  Its  advocates  held  that  the  law  of  Moses  was 
equal  to  the  doctrine  of  Christ.  They  limited  the  divinity 
and  omnipotence  of  Christ  while  showing  great  respect  and 
regard  for  the  dignity  of  His  office  as  the  Messiah  and  His 
conspicuous  merits.  They  practiced  the  right  of  baptism, 
observed  the  Lord's  supper  and  kept  the  seventh  day  of  the 
week.  This  doctrine  was  combatted  by  Paul,  in  that  the 
Law  of  Moses  was  equal  to  the  doctrine  of  Christ. 

Gnosticism  was  "  a  natural  result  of  the  contact  of 
Christianity  with  oriental  and  Greek  philosophy,  and  was 
the  earliest  attempt  to  construct  a  philosophical  basis  of 
faith."  It  has  also  been  defined  as  '*an  attempt  to  solve 
the  great  problems  of  theology  by  combining  the  elements 
of  pagan  mysticism  with  the  Jewish  and  Christian  tradi- 
tions." 

It  undertook,  among  other  things,  to  give  an  answer  to 
the  problem  of  the  origin  of  evil.  While  it  asserted  its 
belief  in  one  supreme  God,  it  also  taught  that  matter  is  es- 
sentially evil  and  the  source  of  evil.  As  God  is  pure  and 
good,  God  and  matter  must  be  antagonistic ;  the  world 
could  not  have  come  directly  from  God.  To  bridge  this 
chasm  a  whole  crowd  or  chain  of  intermediate  beings  (the 
first  coming  from  God)  were  conceived  between  God  and 
matter  or  the  world,  *'  till  at  last  the  intangible  and  infinite 
was  confined  and  curdled  into  actual  matter,  and  the  pure 
was  darkened  into  evil."  The  lowest  of  the  ceons  coming 
from  God  is  the  Demiurge  who  constructs  the  universe  out 
of  matter.  Some  of  the  teachings  were  *'  that  spirit  has 
become  imprisoned  in  matter.  The  soul  of  man  is  impris- 
oned in  his  body.     Christ  the  highest  aeon  emanated  from 


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God  and  liberated  man's  spirit  from  matter,  but  as  the  con- 
tact of  matter  with  spirit  is  contaminatign  Christ  could  not 
have  had  a  human  body,  consequently  His  sufferings  and 
death  on  the  cross  were  only  in  appearance."  The  teaching 
that  matter  is  evil  played  havoc  with  the  simplest  moral 
precepts,  for  if  matter  is  evil  and  the  source  of  evil  man's  sin 
is  to  be  found  not  in  his  will  but  in  his  body.  And  this 
often  led  to  an  extreme  asceticism — to  reduce  the  power  of 
evil — or  extreme  libertinism,  for  it  was  claimed,  by  some, 
that  to  overcome  sensuality  was  to  indulge  in  it.  United 
with  these  teachings  were  often  the  narrowest  thoughts  of 
Jewish  ceremonialism,  insistence  on  circumcision  and  fast 
days,  etc.  It  is  due  to  the  Gnostic  teachers  to  say  that  the 
doctrine  of  intermediate  beings  between  God  and  matter 
was  devised  by  them  to  save  God  from  being  the  author  of 
evil.  Redemption  from  sin,  according  to  the  Jewish  idea, 
if  matter  is  evil  can  come  only  through  asceticism,  hence  the 
upholding  of  ceremonialism. 

Paul  combatted  Gnosticism  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Colos- 
sians  where  the  chief  thought  is,  "  The  dignity  and  sole  suf- 
ficiency of  Jesus  Christ  as  the  Mediator  and  Head  of  all 
creation  and  the  church."  Christ  is  declared  to  be  the  only 
link  between  God  and  the  universe.  *' For  by  Him  were 
all  things  created,  that  are  in  heaven  and  that  are  in  earth, 
visible  and  invisible,  whether  they  be  thrones,  or  domin- 
ions, or  principalities  or  powers  :  all  things  were  created  by 
Him  and  for  Him."  He  is  the  only  Mediator  and  Re- 
deemer from  sin  (Colossians  i  :  20-29)  ^^^  -^^  ^^^  come 
in  the  flesh  and  suffered  on  the  cross.  Gnosticism  failed  in 
many  ways,  one  of  the  chief  of  which  was  its  unhistorical 
and  almost  purely  speculative  character  ;  it  aided,  however, 
in  the  development  of  clear  thought  and  definite  statements 
in  regard  to  Christian  doctrines  and  the  gospel,  on  the  part 
of  those  who  opposed  it. 

Manichaeism  was  a  mixture  of  Christianity,  Parseeism, 
Babylonian  mythology  and  other  foreign  elements.  It  was 
founded  by  Mani.     It  somewhat  resembled  Gnosticism.     Its 


The  Church  in  Controversy  121 


problem  was,  the  conflict  of  good  and  evil.  "  What  is  its 
origin?  What  is  its  solution?"  It  asserted  that  in  the 
beginning  there  were  two  eternal  principles — light  and  dark- 
ness. In  the  long  struggle  between  them  a  portion  of  the 
light  became  imprisoned  in  the  darkness  which,  in  order  to 
retain,  the  power  of  darkness  made  man  in  whom  darkness 
and  light  are  combined  and  who  has  been,  ever  since  his 
creation,  the  victim  of  two  utterly  antagonistic  principles  the 
light  and  the  darkness — good  and  evil.  IVIatter  is  entirely 
bad  and  the  soul  must  be  entirely  free.  Christ  comes  in  a 
seeming  body  and  suffers  a  seeming  death  to  redeem  man 
and  draw  the  particles  of  light  to  Himself.  As  matter  is 
wholly  bad  man  must  help  free  himself  by  a  strict  ?esceti- 
cism.  Three  seals  were  administered.  *'  i.  The  seal  of 
the  mouth  into  which  no  evil  thing  must  come  such  as  ani- 
mal food  and  out  of  which  no  evil  thing,  such  as  an  impure 
word,  must  pass.  2.  The  seal  of  the  hands  which  must  do 
no  evil  things — such  as  are  found  in  material  and  industrial 
pursuits.  3.  The  seal  of  the  bosom  which  forbids  all  sen- 
sual gratification." 

The  answer  to  Manichseism  is  the  same  as  that  to  Gnosti- 
cism. These  two  systems,  with  Ebionism,  represent  three 
of  the  many  attempts  to  mix  Christianity  with  other  ele- 
ments and  the  struggle  of  Christianity  to  get  free  from  them 
and  to  clearly  define  its  differences  from  them. 

PHILOSOPHICAL  CONTROVERSIES 

The  mind  of  the  Greek  was  essentially  speculative.  It  is 
to  him  that  we  owe  all  the  great  ventures  in  the  realm  of 
philosophy.  He  attempted  to  solve  the  riddle  of  the  uni- 
verse. In  Platonism — in  the  fourth  century  before  Christ — 
spirituality  reached  its  highest  point.  Plato  taught  that 
God  is  the  creator  of  the  universe  and  that  man  is  a 
distinct  personality ;  he  also  taught  the  eternity  of  matter 
and  **a  realm  of  ideas,  the  patterns  or  archetypes  of  all 
realities."     ''There  is  a  difference  between  virtue  and  vice 


122       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


both  in  nature  and  consequences.  This  difference  issues 
in  future  happiness  for  the  good  man  and  in  future  unhappi- 
ness  for  the  bad  man."  Aristotle  followed  Plato  rejecting 
some  parts  of  his  teaching  and  accepting  other  parts,  but 
with  all  the  efforts  of  these  intellectual  giants  they  were  un- 
able to  make  many  things  plain.  Pyrrho — in  the  third 
century  before  Christ — is  the  forerunner  of  the  Skeptics. 
He  pointed  out  the  fact  of  the  disagreements  among  philos- 
ophers, which  were  common  in  his  time,  and  declared  that 
the  problems  of  God,  man  and  the  universe  were  insoluble. 
•'*  The  true  course  was  to  make  no  positive  statements  on 
either  side,  since  it  is  just  as  easy  to  prove  one  side  as  the 
other."  The  Epicureans  were  materialistic.  The  Stoics 
were  pantheistic.  The  early  Christian  writers  came  in  con- 
tact with  the  Stoics  who  held  the  stage  during  the  first  two 
centuries  after  Christ ;  amongst  its  followers  were  Seneca, 
Epictetus  and  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  doctrines  of  the 
Skeptics  were  also  prevalent. 

Philosophy  had  done  its  best,  however,  and  had  failed  to 
satisfy  the  mind  of  man.  When  Christ  came  "  there  was 
deep  longing  for  some  eternal  verity — instead  of  speculations 
— upon  which  mankind  could  rest  and  build  its  hopes. 
Philosophy,  statesmanship,  the  heathen  religions  had  all 
done  their  best  to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  real  man. 
Morality,  however,  had  become  lax,  vice  prevailed,  souls 
that  had  not  become  insensible  were  tormented  with  re- 
morse. In  the  face  of  death  there  was  dark  resignation,  or 
utter  hopelessness,  or  outbursts  of  wrath  against  the  gods." 

Christianity  presented  not  only  the  highest  spiritual  and 
ethical  conceptions  but  professed  to  teach  the  ultimate  philos- 
ophy and  to  be  the  eternal  truth.  It  began  to  make  its 
way  with  great  gains  from  all  classes  of  people  and  to 
satisfy  not  only  the  spiritual  but  the  moral  and  intellectual 
longings  of  mankind. 

Now,  however  much  the  various  schools  of  philosophy 
might  differ  from  each  other  or  give  up  in  despair  the  riddle 
of  existence,  none  of  them  fancied  having  Christianity  take 


The  Church  in  Controversy  123 

the  field  from  them.  Then  began  the  philosophical  attacks 
upon  Christianity  and  when  these  failed  attempts  were 
made  to  make  it  conform  its  teachings  to  some  philosophical 
system  or  adapt  some  philosophical  system  to  it.  Here 
again  good  results  came  to  Christianity,  for  it  was  led  to 
make  clear  statements  in  regard  to  itself. 

The  Skeptics'  Controversy  "With  and  Attack  Upon 
Christianity. — The  skeptics  date  back  to  Pyrrho.  They 
had,  in  the  past,  ridiculed  polytheism  and  had  declared  that 
philosophy  could  not  satisfy  man  and  now  they  turned  their 
attention — in  the  second  century  after  Christ — to  Chris- 
tianity. 

Celsus,  the  most  important  opponent,  had  thoroughly 
studied  both  Judaism  and  Christianity,  but  entirely  without 
sympathy.  There  is  not  an  argument  to-day  which  is 
brought  against  Christianity  which  was  not  urged  by  him — 
in  some  form — and  put  with  all  the  ability  and  plausibility 
of  which  he  was  so  capable.  His  book — **A  True  Dis- 
course"— was  especially  aimed  at  ''the  divinity  of  Christ, 
His  virgin  birth.  His  miracles  and  His  resurrection."  He 
was  answered  very  ably  by  Origen  in  his  ''Eight  Books 
against  Celsus."  This  able  exponent  of  Christianity  was 
one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  times  and  not  only 
thoroughly  versed  in  the  Scriptures  but  also  in  Greek 
philosophy. 

Lucian.  He  had  an  exceedingly  critical  mind.  He  was 
a  searcher  after  flaws.  He  was  satirical  and  biting  in  his 
arguments,  withal  he  was  thoroughly  versed  in  the  learning 
of  his  day.  "  He  regarded  Christ  as  a  crucified  Sophist." 
He  held  up  to  scorn  the  doctrine  of  the  brotherhood  of 
man — one  of  the  chief  glories  of  Christianity.  He  said, 
"  They — the  Christians — have  persuaded  themselves  that 
they  are  all  brethren." 

TThe  Neoplatonists*  Attack  Upon  Christianity. — 
Neoplatonism  represents  one  of  the  last  and  most  vigorous 
protests  of  philosophy  against  the  new  faith.  It  not  only 
protested,  but  it  set  up  a  system  of  its  own.     It  armed  itself 


124       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


with  weapons  from  every  source.  Plotinus,  the  founder 
(205-270  A.  D.),  had  his  school  m  Rome.  *' This  school 
was  in  its  essence  religious  rather  than  scientific.  It  starts  from 
a  transcendental  conception  of  God  from  which  it  develops 
the  universe.  The  process  is  emanation  and  absorption. 
The  world  is  an  overflow  from  God  and  its  ultimate  goal 
reabsorption  in  God.  There  are  three  stages  in  the  process 
of  overflow — spirituality,  animality,  and  corporeality.  There 
are  also  three  stages  in  the  process  of  reabsorption — 
sensible  perception,  reasoning  and  mystical  intuition.  In 
the  overflow  there  are  three  distinctions  of  being — intellect 
with  its  ideas  ;  soul  with  its  notions;  body  with  its  forms." 
In  man  are  intellect,  soul,  body.  The  intellect  entices  the 
soul  to  the  intellectual  life,  to  contemplation  and  reabsorp- 
tion in  God — losing  its  individuality.  The  body  entices 
the  soul  on  the  other  hand  to  a  base  life  in  matter.  The 
soul  has  its  choice,  but  even  to  choose  the  highest  is  to  lose 
its  individuality.  At  its  best  estate  Neoplatonism  presented 
few  attractions  and  really  at  no  time  was  a  formidable  foe 
to  Christianity.  In  the  conflicts  which  ensued  it  was  drawn 
more  and  more  into  polytheism  and  ceased  finally  to  exert 
any  influence. 

Porphyry  (233-300  A.  D.),  a  pupil  of  Plotinus  in  the  best 
period  of  Neoplatonism,  proved  himself  a  dangerous  enemy 
of  Christianity  on  account  of  his  exceedingly  able  and 
bitter  attacks  upon  it.  He  made  a  thorough  study  of  the 
Scriptures  and  doctrines  of  the  new  faith  and  with  all  the 
learning  and  adroitness  he  possessed — and  he  was  a  master — 
he  sought  to  overturn  it.  Yet  he  failed — as  the  other  philos- 
ophers had — to  check  the  steady  advance  of  the  gospel  and 
its  winning  power  over  the  hearts  of  men. 

CHRISTIAN  LITERATURE 

Christian  literature  was  occupied  with  a  threefold  task — 
the  setting  forth  of  the  new  faith,  the  defence  of  it  against  its 
enemies,  and  in  attacking  false  system  of  religion,  philos- 


The  Church  in  Controversy  125 


ophy  and  the  evils  of  the  age.  In  the  first  three  hundred 
years  we  find  amongst  its  writers  some  of  the  ablest  intel- 
lectual men  of  the  times.  These  writers — close  to  the 
great  historical  movement  which  has  so  blessed  the  world — 
did  their  task  well.     They  have  been  classified  as  follows : 

New  Testament  Writers. — (See  chapter  7,  '*  The 
Church  in  the  Books.") 

The  Apostolic  Fathers,  such  as  Clement  of  Rome, 
Ignatius  and  Polycarp.  The  title  was  given  to  those  who 
had  or  were  supposed  to  have  had  some  personal  connection 
with  the  apostles. 

The  Apologists  (see  Apologists'  section  in  this  study). 
. — Some  of  the  ablest  of  these  were:  (a)  Quadratus  and 
Aristides.  Quadratus  was  bishop  of  the  Church  of  Athens, 
*'hewas  a  disciple  of  the  apostles"  and  presented  about 
126  A.  D.,  a  discourse  to  the  Emperor  Hadrian  in  defence 
of  the  Christian  faith.  In  it  he  speaks  of  some  persons  who 
had  been  miraculously  healed  by  Christ  as  surviving  to  his 
age.  Aristides,  called  '*out  philosopher,"  by  Jerome  also 
addressed  a  defence  of  the  faith  to  the  emperor.  (<^)  Justin 
Martyr  who  addressed  apologies  to  the  Emperors  An- 
toninus Pius  and  Marcus  Aurelius.  He  also  addressed  one 
to  the  Jews,  (c)  Melito,  he  is  credited  by  Eusebius  with 
eighteen  works.  (^/)  Tatian,  he  wrote  discourses  to  the 
Greeks  and  composed  a '' Diatesseron."  (<?)  Athenagoras, 
he  addressed  an  *' Embassy  concerning  the  Christians" 
to  the  Emperors  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Commodus.  (/") 
Theophilus  and  Minucius  Felix. 

The  Polemics. — We  have  here  a  class  of  men  who  were 
engaged  in  defending  the  church  from  attack  within  its  own 
borders.  Two  of  the  leaders  were:  Iren?eus — bishop  of 
Lyons — who  wrote  a  work  **  Against  Heresies"  and 
Hippolytus  whose  chief  book  was  *'  Refutation  of  all  Here- 
sies. ' ' 

The  Alexandrian  School. — It  was  in  the  great  city  of 
Alexandria  and  in  this  centre  of  the  thought  of  the  times, 
that  Christianity  had  its  highest  intellectual  development. 


126       Studies  in  Early  Church  Histor}' 


The  three  men  who  wrought  here  with  power  for  the  up« 
building  of  Christianity — in  the  first  three  hundred  years 
of  its  existence — were  Pantaenus — a  convert  from  Stoicism 
— Clement,  who  succeeded  Pantaenus  about  199  a.  d., 
and  Origen  (185-253  a.  d.).  They  were  all  masters  of  the 
art  of  effective  writing  and  were  able  to  meet  on  their  own 
ground  the  keenest  philosophers  of  their  day.  Origen  es- 
pecially was  a  voluminous  writer,  he  is  credited  with  being  the 
author  of  hundreds  of  volumes.  One  of  his  works  was 
"First  Principles  "  an  attempt  at  a  systematic  explanation 
of  Christian  doctrine.  There  are  four  parts  or  books. 
<*  God  and  creation;  Creation  and  Providence ;  Man  and 
Redemption;  and  the  Holy  Scriptures." 

The  North  African  Fathers. — The  two  principal  men 
to  which  the  church  owes  so  much  for  its  Latin  Christian 
literature  were  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  (of  the  third  century 
after  Christ).  They  were  both  able  lawyers  and  were  con- 
verted after  they  had  begun  to  practice  their  profession. 
Tertullian  threw  himself  into  the  defence  and  exposition  of 
Christianity  with  all  the  ardour  of  his  fiery  natureo  He  was 
a  voluminous  and  able  writer. 

There  were  many  other  writers,  of  martyrologies,  of 
Christian  life  and  practice,  etc. 

Some  of  the  arguments  which  appealed  most  strongly  to 
the  heathen  were  the  joy  which  the  Christians  manifested  in 
the  exercise  of  their  faith  and  in  the  pure  and  consistent 
lives  which  they  lived. 


The  Church  in  Controversy  127 


QUESTIONS 

State  some  of  the  causes  of  the  conflict.  The  twofold 
nature.  The  fundamental  question.  What  can  be  said  of  the 
antagonism  of  Judaism.?  The  principles  involved?  Early  and 
later  manifestations  ?  Who  were  the  Christian  apologists  ? 
What  can  be  said  of  the  antagonism  of  heathenism  ?  The 
poHtical  conflict  ?  The  caste  conflict  ?  The  religious  conflict  ? 
The  blood  revenge  conflict?  The  unending  conflict  ?  The  bat- 
tle of  ideals?  What  can  be  said  of  the  doctrinal  and  philo- 
sophical controversies  ?  What  were  the  doctrinal  controversies  ? 
Ebionism  ?  Gnosticism  ?  Manichasism  ?  What  were  the  phil- 
osophical controversies?  The  Skeptics?  The  Neoplatonists? 
Give  an  account  of  Christian  literature.  What  can  be  said  of 
the  New  Testament  writers?  The  Apostolic  Fathers?  The 
Apologists  ?  The  Polemics?  The  Alexandrian  School  and  the 
North  African  Fathers? 


Study  IX 

THE  CHURCH  IN  PERSECUTION 

THE  OCCASION 

The  Causes  which  resulted  in  the  conflict  of  the  religious 
and  philosophical  conceptions  and  gave  rise  to  the  literary 
controversies — set  forth  in  Study  VIII — also  produced  the 
persecutions. 

Where  persuasion  and  argument  failed  the  Jews  and 
Romans  tried  brute  force  to  suppress  the  new  faith.  This 
extreme  resort  to  physical  compulsion,  in  order  to  change 
the  belief  of  men,  showed  the  fatal  weaknesses  of  the  old 
systems. 

The  Clash  was  inevitable:  "With  the  Jew  because 
Christianity  claimed  to  supersede  the  law  and  to  rob  the 
chosen  people  of  their  privileges  by  throwing  open  salvation 
to  all  mankind ;  and  also  with  the  heathen  because  Chris- 
tianity was  an  innovation  *  an  imperium  in  imperio,'  a  relig- 
ion which  claimed  to  be  both  universal  and  exclusive  and 
which  condemned  and  opposed  all  other  religions,  including 
those  forms  of  worship  imposed  and  sanctioned  by  the  state." 

Christianity  was  a  religion  of  "no-compromise."  Its 
advocates  rather  than  yield  their  faith  in  Christ  and  in  the 
matter  of  worshipping  the  Roman  Emperor,  the  heathen 
gods  and  goddesses,  and  indulging  in  the  immoralities  of 
many  of  their  groves  and  temples,  endured  imprisonments, 
tortures,  and  death  by  wild  beasts,  by  drowning,  by  behead- 
ing and  by  burning. 

The  Heroic  Elements  of  the  Christian  life  were  called 
out  by  the  oppressive  measures  used.  Religion  was  a  war- 
fare in  every  sense  of  the  word.  Whosoever  became  a 
Christian  during  the  long  years  of  persecution  did  so  at  the 
risk  of  losing  his  property  and  life.     The  Christian  camp 

128 


The  Church  in  Persecution  129 

was  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy.  The  call  for  service  was 
often  of  the  hardest  kind  and  of  that  sort  in  which  soldiers 
are  sometimes  obliged — for  the  good  of  the  whole  army — to 
hold  a  position  and  to  endure  a  destructive  fire  of  the  enemy 
without  being  permitted  to  reply  to  the  firing  or  to  charge 
their  foes.  The  test  was  that  of  suffering,  endurance  and 
waiting. 

The  Creed,  which  gave  an  occasion  for  the  persecutions, 
was  well  known.  It  was  proclaimed  by  Peter  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost  (Acts  2  :  38,  39  ;  comp.  4  :  12),  by  Stephen  when 
he  was  martyred  (Acts  6  :  14;  7  •  55?  56),  by  Paul  in  his 
speeches  and  in  his  epistles  (Acts  26 :  6-29 ;  Romans  i : 
3-6;  I  Corinthians  2  :  1-16;  Philippians  2  :  5-1 1),  and  by 
the  apostles  and  disciples  everywhere.  It  was  all  about 
Christ.  If  a  Christian  was  arrested  for  his  faith,  all  he  had 
to  do  was  to  abjure  the  name  of  Christ  and  throw  a  little 
incense  upon  a  pan  of  fire,  before  an  image  of  the  emperor 
or  some  heathen  god  and  he  was  at  once  released. 

How  closely,  however,  the  great  essential  matters  of  belief 
were  adhered  to  in  the  midst  of  the  age  of  persecution  is 
shown  by  the  account  of  "The  Christian  Creed  "  given  by 
Irenseus  (born  in  Smyrna  135  and  died  as  Bishop  of  Lyons 
about  202  A.  D.)  in  his  book  "Against  Heresies" 
(c.  181  A.  D.).  He  writes  as  follows:  "The  church, 
though  dispersed  throughout  the  whole  world,  even  to  the 
ends  of  the  earth,  has  received  from  the  apostles  and  their 
disciples  this  faith  :  (she  believes)  in  one  God,  the  Father 
Almighty,  Maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  the  sea,  and  all 
things  that  are  in  them ;  and  in  one  Christ  Jesus,  the  Son  of 
God  who  became  incarnate  for  our  salvation ;  and  in  the 
Holy  Spirit,  who  proclaimed  through  the  prophets  the  dis- 
pensations of  God,  and  the  advent  and  the  birth  from  a 
Virgin,  and  the  passion  and  the  resurrection  from  the  dead, 
and  the  ascension  into  heaven,  in  the  flesh,  of  the  beloved 
Christ  Jesus,  our  Lord,  and  His  (future)  manifestation  from 
heaven  in  the  glory  of  the  Father  to  gather  all  things  in 
one,  and   to  raise  up  anew  all  flesh  of  the  whole  human 


130       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


race,  in  order  that  to  Christ  Jesus,  our  Lord  and  God,  and 
Saviour,  and  King,  according  to  the  will  of  the  invisible 
Father,  every  knee  should  bow,  of  things  in  heaven  and  things 
in  earth  and  things  under  the  earth,  and  that  every  tongue 
should  confess  to  Him,  and  that  He  should  execute  just  judg- 
ment towards  all ;  that  He  may  send  spiritual  wickedness  and 
the  ange.s  who  transgressed  and  became  apostates,  together 
with  the  ungodly  and  unrighteous  and  wicked  and  profane 
among  men,  into  everlasting  fire ;  but  He  may,  in  the  exercise 
of  His  grace,  confer  immortality  on  the  righteous  and  holy, 
and  those  who  have  kept  His  commandments,  and  have  per- 
severed in  His  love,  some  from  the  beginning  (of  their  Chris- 
tian course),  and  others  from  (the  date  of)  their  repentance, 
and  may  surround  them  with  everlasting  glory." 

THE  JEWISH  PERSECUTIONS 

Their  Origin  was  in  the  claims  of  Christ  for  Himself  and 
of  His  followers  for  Him.  The  Jews  would  have  been  well 
content  to  receive  Christ  as  a  great  teacher  or  a  political 
Messiah.  They  would  gladly  have  made  Him  their  king 
(John  6  :  15)  to  lead  them  to  victory  over  other  peoples  and 
to  replace  the  Roman  by  a  Jewish  empire,  but  the  greater 
spiritual  Kingdom  of  God,  presented  by  Christ,  they  seemed 
to  fail  to  comprehend.  With  a  waning  spirituality,  they 
were  filled  with  the  idea  of  a  magnificent  temporal  and 
earthly  kingdom.  Certainly  Jesus  Christ,  in  every  way, 
sought  to  turn  the  eyes  of  Israel  to  the  larger  vision  of  the 
universal  everlasting  nature  of  His  kingdom,  but  they  would 
have  none  of  it.  How  futile  was  the  plan  of  a  great  tem- 
poral knigdom  was  seen  when  the  Jews  revolted  and  had 
their  city  and  temple  destroyed  by  Titus  in  70  a.  d.,  and 
again  were  crushed  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  when  they 
rose  in  an  insurrection  (in  131  a.  d.)  under  the  false  Mes- 
siah Bar-Cokheba.  But  while  warning  the  nation  of  the 
danger  of  rejecting  Him  and  entreating  the  people  to  turn 
to  Him,  Christ  abated  no  claim  to  be  The  Messiah,  pre- 


The  Church  in  Persecution  131 


dieted  by  the  prophets,  and  The  Son  of  God.  It  may  be 
said  to  be  doubtful  if  Christ  would  have  been  condemned  to 
death  if  He  had  not  affirmed  that  He  was  The  Christ  before 
the  high  priest  Caiaphas  and  before  the  Sanhedrin  in  an- 
swer to  direct  questions  whether  He  was  the  Christ  or  not. 
The  high  priest  asked  Him,  ''  Art  thou  the  Christ,  the  Son 
of  the  Blessed ?  "  Jesus  said,  "I  am  ;  and  ye  shall  see  the 
Son  of  Man  sitting  on  the  right  hand  of  power  and  coming 
with  the  clouds  of  heaven"  (Mark  14:  61-64;  Matthew 
26  :  63-66  ;  Luke  22  ;  67-71). 

Extent  and  Time. — The  persecutions  began  in  Jerusa- 
lem, in  the  crucifixion  of  Christ ;  they  continued  after  His 
resurrection  in  the  Jews  haling  the  apostles  before  the  mag- 
istrates and  in  imprisoning  them  for  speaking  and  teaching 
in  His  name  (Acts  4  :  1-2 1  ;  5  :  18-42).  They  broke 
out  afresh  upon  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen  (Acts  7  :  5  2-60 ; 
8  :  1-4)  led  by  Saul.  When  Saul  was  converted  the  Jews 
never  ceased  to  harass  him  in  every  city  in  which  they  were 
strong  enough  to  do  so. 

The  time  of  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews  was,  however, 
quite  limited.  After  70  a.  d.  they  ceased  to  be  of  much 
consequence,  not  because  the  bitterness  of  their  spirit  was 
taken  away,  but  because  through  the  destruction  of  their 
holy  city  their  power  to  do  harm  was  seriously  weakened. 

The  Conduct  of  the  Persecuted. — They  adopted  and 
kept  the  policy  of  non-resistance.  Put  in  prison  and  beaten 
with  stripes  they  manifested  no  spirit  of  revenge.  Their 
chief  care  was  to  again  go  and  preach  the  gospel  (Acts 
4  :  18-20).  The  increase  in  the  stress  and  bitterness  of  the 
persecution  only  scattered  the  disciples  abroad  preaching 
Christ  in  other  regions  (Acts  8  ;  i).  With  Paul  to  be 
driven  from  one  city  was  immediately  to  seek  another. 

THE  ROMAN  PERSECUTIONS 

The  Policy  of  the  Empire. — An  attempt  was  made  by 
the  Romans  to  bind  their  people  together  by  a  religion^ 


132       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 

The  necessity  for  a  universal  religion  was  felt  from  the  fact 
of  the  political  unity  which  had  been  accomplished  by  force 
of  arms.  The  unity  of  the  state  required  a  common  religion 
to  create  a  common  tie  amongst  the  heterogeneous  popula- 
tions of  which  the  empire  was  composed.  This  universal- 
made-to-order-political-religion  was  an  eclectic  one — a  patch- 
work— taking  elements  from  this  and  that  national  religion 
with  a  deified  emperor  at  the  head  to  whom  was  paid  divine 
honours.  It  was  a  religion  in  which  vice — in  ''  the  mys- 
teries " — often  clothed  itself  in  the  mantle  of  worship  and 
made  religion  its  servant ;  hence  the  awful  immoralities 
prevalent  in  society  of  which  Roman  writers  tell  us. 

The  worship  of  the  Roman  emperor  was  the  one  form  of 
worship,  however,  which  was  coextensive  with  the  empire. 
It  was  the  most  real  in  the  provinces  where  the  emperor  was 
personally  unknown.  It  had  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
the  good  or  bad  character  of  the  man  who  occupied  the  seat 
of  the  Caesars.  The  worst  of  the  emperors — as  embodi- 
ments of  the  power  of  the  empire — ^were  deified.  Thus  the 
national  religion,  when  Christianity  began  its  work,  was 
divorced  from  virtue  and  morality.  "  Philosophy  also  gave 
JO  help  to  morality  for  it  had  become  sceptical  and  ma- 
terialistic in  its  tone  and  doubted  or  denied  the  existence  of 
a  spiritual  world  and  the  value  of  moral  virtue." 

Not  to  worship  the  image  of  the  emperor  was  considered 
an  act  of  treason  to  the  state  and  was  to  be  punished  ac- 
cordingly. 

The  Attitude  of  Christianity. — It  at  once  claimed  to 
be  the  universal  religion — the  consummation  of  Judaism — 
and  to  supersede  all  other  forms  of  religion,  in  the  empire, 
which  were  dust  and  ashes,  dead  and  done  with.  Christ 
had  commanded  His  disciples  ''  Go  ye  and  teach  all  nations, 
baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost "  (Matthew  28  :  19).  Paul  declared 
in  his  speech  before  the  Athenians,  ''  And  the  times  of  this 
ignorance  God  winked  at  but  now  commandeth  all  men 
everywhere  to  repent  "  (Acts  17  ;  30,  16-34). 


The  Church  in  Persecution  133 


It  set  up  a  new  kingdom  (Matthew  6  :  33)  and  com- 
manded the  allegiance  of  all  men  to  a  divine  King  first,  and 
before  that  of  the  Roman  empire  and  its  emperor.  It  de- 
clared that  any  ^' law  of  the  empire  which  conflicted  with 
the  principles  of  the  church  must  give  way."  It  demanded 
of  men  not  only  the  purity  of  an  outward  living  but  also 
that  of  the  heart. 

"  From  a  practical  point  of  view  what  was  of  still  greater 
moment  than  the  campaign  against  the  world  and  the  worship 
of  the  gods,  was  the  campaign  against  the  apotheosis  of 
men.  This  struggle  which  reached  its  height  in  the  uncom- 
promising rejection  of  the  imperial  cultus,  marked  at  the 
same  time  the  resolute  protest  of  Christianity  against  the 
blending  of  religion  and  patriotism,  and  consequently 
against  that  cultus  of  the  state  in  which  the  state  (personified 
in  the  emperor)  formed  itself  the  object  of  the  cultus.  One 
of  the  cardinal  aims  and  issues  of  the  Christian  religion  was 
to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  the  worship  of  God  and  the 
honour  due  to  the  state  and  its  leaders.  Christianity  tore 
up  political  religion  by  the  roots." 

The  Joining  of  the  Issue. — At  first  the  Romans  did  not 
persecute  the  Christians  because  they  were  not  awake  to  the 
radical  nature  of  their  teachings.  Christianity  was  supposed 
to  be  a  sect  of  Judaism  and  Judaism  was  a  national  religion 
and  under  the  protection  of  the  empire.  While  the  Jews 
really  took  the  same  stand  as  the  Christians  against  the 
worship  of  the  emperor,  as  a  god,  yet  this  was  not  made  a 
ground  of  accusation  and  persecution,  because  Judaism  was 
practically  limited — in  its  scope — to  the  Jews. 

It  was  the  active  and  zealous  missionary  work  of  the 
Christians  which  brought  them  into  conflict  with  the  Roman 
cultus.  Men  of  all  nations  began  to  embrace  Christianity 
and,  rejecting  the  Avorship  of  the  heathen  gods  and  the 
emperor,  to  declare  their  allegiance  to  a  Higher  Power  than 
that  of  the  empire.     It  was  Christ  or  Cjesar. 

The  boasted  toleration  and  liberality  of  the  empire  had  cer- 
tain fixed  limits.     Had  the  Christians  been  willing  to  enter 


134       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 

with  a  religion  which  would  take  its  place  with  a  hundred 
or  so  of  other  religions  there  would  have  been  no  persecu- 
tion, but  it  claimed  to  be  the  one  true  faith  and  for  that 
claim  it  had  to  suffer.  It  was  a  Roman  principle  that  men 
must  have  no  gods  not  sanctioned  by  law.  The  Christians 
were  guilty  of  a  double  offense — they  strove  by  every  means 
to  persuade  citizens  to  abandon  the  worship  sanctioned  by 
Roman  law  and  to  introduce  rites  not  sanctioned  by  it. 
Christianity  was  a  perpetual  menace  to  the  government  and 
to  its  religion  and  the  ''allowed  rehgions "  and  it  was 
silently  and  rapidly  extending  itself  through  every  province 
of  the  empire.  ''Already  its  members  were  coming  into 
collision  with  Imperial  ordinances,  and  neither  remonstrance 
nor  punishment  could  induce  them  to  give  way.  They 
spoke  among  themselves  of  a  kingdom  to  which  they  be- 
longed, and  of  a  King  to  whom  they  owed  an  allegiance 
which  superseded  their  obligations  to  the  emperor.  Far 
reaching  as  was  the  Imperial  arm,  here  was  a  sphere  in 
which  it  seemed  to  be  paralyzed.  It  could  quell  a  rebellion 
in  Persia  or  in  Britain  but  at  the  very  gates  of  the  palace 
was  a  power  which  baffled  it.  This  power  had  its  officials 
— often  men  of  no  position  in  the  world — who  in  their  own 
community  were  more  than  a  match  for  the  emperor  him- 
self They  were  his  subjects  and  he  could  take  their  lives. 
But  no  sooner  was  one  official  executed  than  another  took 
his  place.  The  man  was  gone  but  the  system  went  on  as 
before.  Hostility  to  the  church  engendered  by  conservatism 
and  intensified  by  suspicion  reached  a  climax  when  experi- 
ence proved  that  neither  argument  nor  ridicule  nor  repressive 
measures  served  to  check  Christianity.  The  heathen  in 
their  turn  became  afraid. 

"The  persecutions  which  began  in  ignorance  and  dislike 
were  continued  in  hatred  and  in  fear.  The  chief  motive  of  the 
worst  attacks  on  the  Christians  was  neither  wantonness,  nor 
contempt,  nor  cruelty  but  terror.  Pagan  society  felt  itself 
in  the  meshes  of  a  net,  whose  steadily  increasing  extent  and 
strength  had  baffled  all  attempts  to  destroy  it.     It  was  this 


The  Church  in  Persecution  135 

feeling  of  failure  and  helplessness  against  an  unknown 
power  which  exasperated  the  masses  in  the  first  half  of  the 
persecutions  and  the  officials  in  the  second  half.  In  both 
cases  the  heathen  were  well  aware  that  they  had  every 
advantage  on  their  side — authority,  rank,  wealth,  education, 
numbers,  tradition,  physical  force.  And  yet  in  spite  of  all 
these  they  were  not  victorious.  They  had  lost  much  and 
gained  nothing  j  and  they  were  frantic  at  the  prospect  of 
defeat.  There  is  no  cruelty  more  reckless  than  that  which 
is  born  of  terror;  and  it  was  frenzy  of  this  kind  which 
often  inspired  the  savage  outcries  and  diabolical  legal  pro- 
ceedings against  the  Christians." 

The  Penalties,  inflicted  upon  the  Christians,  were  in 
accord  with  well  and  long  established  Roman  laws.  The 
large  claims  of  Christianity  brought  it  within  the  clutches 
of  these  laws.  The  empire  was  not  so  tolerant  or  so  easy 
going  as  it  has  sometimes  been  made  to  appear.  The  Ro- 
man magistrates  could  inflict  a  great  variety  of  punishments, 
all  according  to  law  and  the  view  which  they  desired  to 
take  of  Christianity.  "  It  might  be  treated  as  an  unlicensed 
religion,  or  as  high  treason,  or  as  sacrilege,  or  as  magic ; 
perhaps  also  as  incest.  Introducers  of  new  religions,  if  of 
good  birth,  were  to  be  banished  to  an  island ;  otherwise 
they  were  to  be  put  to  death.  Those  guilty  of  high  treason, 
if  of  good  birth,  were  to  be  beheaded ;  if  not  to  be  exposed 
to  the  beasts  or  burned  alive.  In  either  case  they  might  be 
tortured.  Sacrilege  was  similarly  punished,  with  the 
additional  alternative  of  crucifixion,  but  with  the  exclusion 
of  torture  in  the  case  of  citizens.  Magic  was  punishable 
with  exposure  to  wild  beasts,  burning  or  crucifixion  ;  incest 
with  banishment.  Such  a  combination  of  crimes — which 
were  wrongfully  ascribed  to  the  Christians — in  one  and  the 
same  set  of  men  made  the  Roman  officials  intolerant." 
The  penalties  were  often  inflicted  with  the  utmost  cruelty 
without  regard  to  age  or  sex.  In  the  great  Coliseum  at 
Rome,  the  sufferings  of  the  Christians  were  made  to  serve 
as  amusements  for  the  Roman  populace. 


136       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


Extent  and  Time. — The  scope  of  the  persecutions  was 
coextensive  with  the  empire.  The  time  was  about  three 
hundred  years — from  Christ  to  the  Emperor  Constantine. 
While  the  laws  might  be  invoked  at  any  time  and  the 
penalties  enforced,  as  they  were,  with  the  utmost  vigour  for 
years  at  a  time,  yet  there  were  periods  again  and  again 
when  no  action  was  taken  and  the  Christians  were  left  alone 
in  their  religious  beliefs. 

The  Ten  Persecutions. — This  has  been  the  common 
number  usually  spoken  of  by  writers  upon  this  subject  and 
this  custom  is  followed  here  for  the  convenience  of  the 
arrangement.  There  were  really  fewer  great  persecutions 
and  very  many  more  lesser  ones.  The  persecutions  differed 
much  also  in  their  character,  aim  and  intensity  j  for  in- 
stance, '<  those  under  Nero  and  Domitian  were  capricious 
outbursts  of  cruelty  and  tyranny  and  those  under  Decius, 
Valerian  and  Diocletian  were  systematic  attempts  to  ex- 
tinguish Christianity  throughout  the  empire.  But  at  any 
time  any  Christian  might  be  accused  before  a  Roman 
magistrate  and  suffer  the  extreme  penalty  for  his  faith." 
Justin  Martyr  tells  this  story — which  was  not  an  uncommon 
occurrence — **a  wife  was  accused  by  her  husband  of  being 
a  Christian.  She  got  the  trial  postponed;  and  he  then 
accused  Ptolemaeus,  her  instiuctor.  In  court  Ptolemaeus 
was  merely  asked,  'Are  you  a  Christian?'  He  said, 
*  Yes,'  and  was  at  once  sentenced  to  death.  One  Lucius 
remonstrated  with  the  prefect  for  condemning  a  man  simply 
for  being  a  Christian.  'You  also  seem  to  be  one,'  was  the 
reply ;  and  on  his  admitting  it,  he  too  was  sentenced  to 
death.  And  then  a  third  came  forward  and  was  likewise 
punished."  This  was  done  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Trajan  and  Justin  Martyr  adds  that  he  expected  to  be  de- 
nounced and  condemned  himself. 

I.  By  Nero  (emperor  a.  d.  54-68.  Special  years  of 
persecution  a.  d.  64-68). — An  account  of  this  time  of  trial 
has  been  given  in  Study  IV — see  sections,  ''  The  First  Great 
Roman  Persecution  "  and  "The  Numbers  and  Suffering  of 


The  Church  in  Persecution  137 


the  Christians."  Paul  perished  in  this  persecution.  The 
rapid  spread  of  the  faith,  the  numbers  of  the  Christians  in 
Rome,  at  this  early  period,  and  the  fearful  sufferings  to 
which  they  were  subjected  are  attested  by  the  Roman 
historian  Tacitus. 

The  successors  of  Nero  were  Galba,  a.  d.  68,  Otho, 
Vitellius,  A.  D.  69,  Vespasian,  a.  d.  69-79,  Titus, 
A.  D.  79-81. 

2.  By  Domitian  (emperor  a.  d.  81-96.  Special  years 
of  persecution  a.  d.  95,  96). — Domitian  was  of  a  suspicious 
and  tyrannical  nature  and  he  made  a  direct  attack  upon 
Christianity.  From  the  refusal  of  the  Christians  to  pay 
honour  to  the  gods  of  Rome  they  were  charged  with  being 
atheists.  Flavins  Clemens,  the  uncle  of  the  emperor,  is  said 
to  have  suffered  martyrdom  while  Domatilla,  Clemens'  wife, 
was  banished  on  a  similar  charge.  **  Their  sons,  the  pre- 
sumptive heirs  to  the  throne,  were  brought  up  by  a  Christian 
mother."  (For  description  of  the  catacomb  of  Flavia 
Domatilla  see  Study  V,  section  **  Groups.")  So  soon  did 
Christianity  attract  to  itself  many  in  high  position  in  the 
empire.  So  strong  had  the  Christians  become  in  numbers 
and  in  asserting  the  Kingship  of  Christ  and  His  right  to  rule 
and  reign  over  all  men  that  Domitian  pressed  the  persecutions 
and  ''becoming  apprehensive  of  the  appearance  of  a  'Son 
of  David  '  as  a  rival  claimant  of  his  throne  (so  Eusebius  re- 
lates) he  caused  vigorous  inquiries  to  be  made  in  Palestine, 
which  led  to  the  apprehension  of  the  grandsons  of  Jude,  the 
Lord's  brother  (Mark  6:3).  The  simplicity,  however,  of 
the  garb  and  demeanour  of  these  men  and  the  marks  of 
labour  on  their  horny  hands  convinced  the  tyrant  that  he 
had  nothing  to  fear  from  them."  So  little  did  this  emperor 
comprehend  the  nature  of  the  great  invisible  spiritual  king- 
dom of  Christ. 

The  successor  of  Domitian  was  Nerva,  a.  d.  96-98. 

3.  By  Trajan  (emperor  a.  d.  98-117.  Special  years 
of  persecution  a.  d.  104-117). — As  the  years  passed  the 
attitude  of  the  empire   towards  Christianity  became  more 


138       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


clearly  defined.  The  more  loyal  the  emperor  was  to  the  old 
forms  of  worship  and  the  old  gods  the  more  bitter  the  per- 
secution. Trajan  was  one  of  the  great  emperors  who  sought 
to  uphold  the  Roman  prestige.  He  was  compelled  to  define 
the  position  of  the  empire  upon  Christianity  even  more  closely 
than  his  predecessors.  This  was  due  to  the  fact  of  the  still 
increasing  numbers  of  Christians.  We  get  ?reat  hght  upon 
this  matter  and  period  from  a  letter  written  about  a.  d.  112 
by  the  governor,  Pliny,  the  younger — of  the  province  of 
Bithynia — to  the  Emperor  Trajan.  He  was  in  great  doubt 
in  regard  to  what  ought  to  be  done  when  so  many  people  in 
his  province  had  become  Christians.  Pliny  writes  (only  ex- 
tracts from  the  letter  are  here  quoted),  <*  Indeed  the  matter 
seemed  to  me  to  be  a  proper  one  for  consultation  chiefly  on 
account  of  the  number  of  persons  imperilled.  For  many  of 
all  ages  and  all  ranks,  aye,  and  of  both  sexes,  are  being 
called  and  will  be  called  in  danger.  Nor  are  cities  only 
permeated  by  the  contagion  of  this  superstition,  but  villages 
and  country  parts  as  well."  He  goes  on  to  suggest  that  if 
milder  measures  were  used  it  might  be  possible  to  help  mat- 
ters ;  so  little  did  even  he  comprehend  the  nature  of  Christ's 
kingdom  and  think  that  its  growth  could  be  checked  by 
means  at  his  command. 

In  regard  to  the  manner  of  the  inquiry  into  the  Christian 
faith  of  the  accused  and  the  harshness  of  the  punishment 
meted  out  upon  the  open  profession  of  Christianity,  he  says, 
"  Meanwhile  in  the  case  of  those  who  have  been  brought 
before  me  in  the  character  of  Christians,  my  course  has  been 
as  follows :  I  put  it  to  themselves  whether  they  were  or 
were  not  Christians.  To  such  as  professed  that  they  were  I 
put  the  mquiry  a  second  and  a  third  time,  threatening  them 
with  the  supreme  penalty.  Those  who  persisted  I  ordered 
to  execution."  He  says  further  that  the  very  handling  of 
this  matter  caused  it  to  spread  and  that  many  were  accused 
of  being  Christians  before  his  tribunal.  Of  some  of  the 
methods  used  in  obtaining  evidence  he  declares  that  "  This 
made  me  think  it  all  the  more  necessary  to  inquire,  even  by 


The  Church  in  Persecution  139 


torture,  of  two  maid  servants  who  were  styled  deaconesses, 
what  the  truth  was."  Desiring  to  test  certain  persons  he 
says  that  he  caused  the  statue  of  the  emperor  to  be  intro- 
duced amongst  the  images  of  the  gods  and  required  them  to 
worship  and  to  offer  wine  and  incense  before  them — ''  none 
of  which  things  it  is  said  can  such  as  are  really  and  truly 
Christians  be  compelled  to  do."  (For  the  belief  of  the 
Christians  of  which  Pliny  gives  an  account,  see  Study  VI, 
section  "  Form  of  Public  Worship.") 

In  reply  to  this  letter  the  Emperor  Trajan  lays  down  three 
principles  of  action,  i.  ''Christians  are  not  to  besought 
out ;  but  if  formally  accused  and  convicted,  they  are  to  be 
punished."  We  notice  here,  after  all,  the  strictness  of  the 
command  and  the  ease  with  which  it  could  be  made  the 
means  of  bringing  torture  and  death  to  the  Christians  under 
magistrates  who  wished  no  leniency  to  be  shown  them.  The 
principle  was  laid  down  that  to  be  a  Christian  was  to  be  a 
criminal.  2.  "Those  who  deny  that  they  are  Christians 
and  worship  '  our  gods  '  are  to  be  pardoned  no  matter  how 
suspicious  their  past  history  may  have  been."  The  way  of 
apostasy  was  made  easy.  3.  ''Anonymous  accusations 
must  not  be  accepted."  This  is  the  saving  clause,  which 
greatly  aided  the  Christians.  Still  Christianity  stood  in  the 
place  of  an  illegal  religion  and  its  followers  were  constantly 
in  danger  of  death.  By  this  decree  they  were,  however,  to 
have  the  benefit  of  a  legal  trial.  Trajan's  purpose  was  evi- 
dently to  put  down  Christianity  by  being  both  firm  and  con- 
ciliatory. 

In  the  many  martyrdoms  that  took  place  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  was  that  of  Ignatius  (bishop  of  Antioch  about 
69  A.  D.).  He  is  said  to  have  known  the  apostles  and  to 
have  been  with  Polycarp  a  hearer  of  John,  the  apostle.  He 
surrendered  himself  to  the  Emperor  Trajan,  when  he  passed 
through  Antioch  on  his  way  to  an  expedition  against  the 
Parthians.  "  After  a  brief  and  contemptuous  examination 
Trajan  ordered  hini  to  be  sent  to  Rome,  there  to  be  exposed 
to  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre."     (For  a  brief  account  of  the 


140       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


writings  of  Ignatius,  see  Study  VII,  section  "  Early  Christian 
Writers.") 

The  successors  of  Trajan  were  Hadrian  (a.  d.  i  17-138) 
and  Antoninus  Pius  (a.  d.  i 38-1 61).  Hadrian  wrote  to 
Minucius  Fundanus,  proconsul  of  Asia  Minor,  that  a  firm 
adherence  to  their  profession — which  he  calls ''obstinacy  " 
— on  the  part  of  the  Christians  should  be  punished.  The 
bishop  of  Rome  suffered  martyrdom  and  other  martyrdoms 
are  reported,  but  Hadrian  was  hardly  serious  enough  to  be 
a  great  persecutor.  **He  aspired  to  be  an  agreeable  man, 
an  amateur  philosopher  and  a  patron  of  art  and  literature." 
When  the  Jews — in  his  reign — revolted  under  the  false  mes- 
siah  Bar-Cokheba,  the  Christians  took  no  part  in  the  re- 
bellion. For  this  reason,  doubtless,  when  Jerusalem  was 
rebuilt  under  its  new  name,  ^lia  Capitolina,  the  Christians 
were  allowed  to  live  there  while  the  Jews  were  excluded. 
Antoninus  Pius'  reign  is  generally  regarded  as  a  peaceful 
one  for  the  Christians.  Yet  "the  church  was  harassed, 
especially  in  the  distant  provinces  of  the  empire,  by  those 
who  persisted  in  attributing  all  calamities,  such  as  earth- 
quake, inundation  and  pestilence,  to  the  Christians." 

4.  By  Marcus  Aurelius  (emperor  a.  d.  i  61-180. 
Special  years  of  persecution,  the  whole  period  of  his  reign.) 
— This  was  the  most  tragic  and  prolonged  period  of  persecu- 
tion which  the  church  had  yet  experienced.  A  systematic 
attempt  was  made  to  crush  out  Christianity  under  the  direct 
command  of  the  emperor.  "A  new  order  was  also  laid 
down  that  informers  were  to  receive  the  property  of  the 
condenmed  Christians.  The  results  were  hideous.  The 
mines  were  crowded  with  prisoners.  Torture  and  blood- 
shed went  on  continually  in  Asia,  Byzantium,  Africa  and 
Gaul."  The  narrative  of  the  fiery  trial  of  the  Christians  in 
Gaul  was  written  by  some  of  the  sufferers — and  is  preserved 
by  Eusebius.  This  persecution  has  scarcely  a  parallel 
in  the  records  of  martyrdom  for  cruelty  as  well  as  for  the 
number  and  heroism  of  its  victims.  The  names  of  many  of 
the    martyrs    have   been   preserved.      Among  them   are : 


The  Church  in  Persecution  141 


Pothinus,  bishop  of  Lyons,  Sanctus,  native  of  Pergamos, 
Attalus,  a  noble  Roman,  Maturus,  Vettius  Epagathus. 
Others  illustrious  martyrs  were  Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna 
and  disciple  of  John  the  apostle  and  Justin  Martyr  (see 
Study  VII,  section  "  Early  Christian  Writers  "  for  a  further 
account  of  these  men).  It  was  also  a  time  of  a  great  and 
fierce  literary  assault  upon  the  Christians  by  such  writers  as 
Lucian,  Cresceus  and  Celsus. 

Yet  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  was  a  philosophic 
moralist,  a  patron  of  the  Stoics.  He  has  been  called  the 
last  and  the  best  product  of  the  pagan  civilization.  He  wrote 
such  sentiments  as  these:  '*  Who  can  change  the  opinions  of 
men,"  "And  without  change  of  sentiments  what  can  you 
make  but  reluctant  slaves  and  hypocrites,"  ''Men  were 
made  for  men,"  ''correct  them,  then,  or  endure  them," 
*'  correct  them  if  you  can,"  **  If  not  remember  that  patience 
was  given  you  to  practice  for  their  good." 

Many  explanations  have  been  given  to  account  for  his 
fiery  persecuting  zeal;  some  declare  that  he  took  evil 
counsel  from  certain  men,  and  others  say  that  there  was  some 
personal  offense,  but  the  simplest  and  best  explanation  seems 
to  be,  ''that  he  saw  more  deeply  into  the  reality  of  things 
than  his  predecessors ;  his  philosophy  taught  him  that  a 
kingdom  whose  basis  was  human  self-sufficiency  and  pride 
could  not  coexist  with  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  and  as  a 
moralist  he  revolted  from  a  doctrine  which  assured  him  that 
his  morals  were  useless  either  to  regenerate,  to  strengthen,  or 
to  console." 

The  church  was  helped  rather  than  weakened  by  these 
assaults  by  the  power  and  intellect  of  Rome.  Never  had 
she  been  quite  so  fearless  and  spoken  in  so  triumphant  a 
tone. 

The  successors  of  Marcus  Aurelius  were  Commodus 
(a.  d.  180-192),  Pertinax,  Didius  Julianus  (a.  d.  193). 
Under  Commodus  the  persecutions  before  long  ceased  and  the 
churches  had  rest.  One  noble  martyr  is  recorded,  Apol- 
lonius,  a  Roman  senator,  who  was  beheaded.     Marcia,  who 


142       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


became  empress  in  183  a.  d.,  was  favourable  to  the  Chris« 
tians  and  procured  the  release  of  many  who,  for  their  faith 
had  been  condemned  to  the  horrors  of  the  mines  of  Sardinia. 
It  was  a  time  of  peace  and  revival  for  the  church.  But 
this  very  revival  of  the  church  and  the  stirring  of  men  to 
think  of  the  new  life  helped  to  revive  a  dying  Paganism  and 
gave  rise  to  new  struggles. 

5.  By  Septimius  Severus  (emperor  a.  d.  103-21  i. 
Special  years  of  persecution  a.  d.  200-211). — At  first  this 
emperor  was  friendly  to  Christianity  because  he  had  been 
cured  of  some  malady  by  a  Christian  slave,  Proculus.  The 
Imperial  favour,  however,  was  before  long  withdrawn  from 
the  Christians  and  in  202  a.  d.  the  emperor  issued  a  new 
edict  forbidding  his  subjects  to  become  converts  either  of 
Judaism  or  Christianity.  It  is  thought  that  the  able  defense 
of  Christianity  and  the  attacks  upon  heathenism  by  the 
Christian  writers  of  this  time,  together  with  the  rapidly  in- 
creasing numbers  of  the  Christians  had  much  to  do  with  the 
issuing  of  the  new  edict.  The  father  of  the  celebrated 
Origen,  Leonides  of  Alexandria,  was  one  of  the  first  victims 
of  the  new  law.  Origen  then  only  seventeen  years  of  age 
wanted  to  share  the  martjTdom  of  his  father,  but  was  pre- 
vented. He  however  wrote  his  father  a  letter,  when  he  was 
about  to  be  martyred.  In  this  letter  speaking  for  the  family 
— "  a  wife  about  to  be  left  a  widow  with  seven  children, 
fatherless  and  poor,  the  martyr's  property  being  confiscated  by 
the  state  " — he  said,  *'  look  to  it  that  thou  dost  not  change 
thy  mind  on  our  account."  In  Carthage  the  persecution 
raged  with  great  fierceness  and  there  were  many  heroic  ex- 
amples of  martyrdom  both  of  men  and  women. 

The  successors  of  Septimius  Severus  were  Caracalla, 
a.  d.  2 1 1-2 1 7,  Macrinus,  a.  d.  217,  Elagabalus,  a.  d. 
218-222,  Alexander  Severus,  a.  d.  222-234.  Caracalla  was 
of  an  evil  character  himself  yet  he  issued  an  edict  permitting 
the  return  of  all  who  had  been  exiled  for  any  crime ;  under 
this  edict  many  Christians  returned  to  their  homes.  Elaga- 
balus attempted  to  introduce  sun-worship  and  desiring  tolera- 


The  Church  in  Persecution  143 


tion  for  this  new  form  of  worship  forbore  to  persecute  the 
Christians.  Alexander  Severus  was  one  of  the  great  em- 
perors. His  mother,  Juha  Mamaea  had  for  one  of  her 
friends  and  counsellors  the  celebrated  Origen,  and  Christian 
influences  entered  into  the  training  of  her  son.  While  not 
a  convert  the  emperor  honoured  the  name  of  Christ.  He 
caused  to  be  engraved  on  the  walls  and  public  monuments 
of  Rome  the  gospel  precept,  *'As  ye  would  that  men 
should  do  to  you,  do  ye  so  to  them  likewise."  He  failed 
however  to  legalize  Christianity.  He  was  slain  in  his 
thirtieth  year. 

6.  By  Maximinus  (emperor  a.  d.  235-237.  Special 
years  of  persecution,  the  same). — He  was  a  brawny 
Thracian  and  reversed  the  policy  of  Alexander  Severus 
whom  he  had  murdered.  He  was  a  persecutor  of  the  worst 
kind  and  many  Christians  were  exiled  and  many  killed. 

The  successors  of  Maximinus  were  Gordian  I,  II,  III, 
A.  D.  238-243,  Philip  the  Arabian,  a.  d.  244-249.  Gordian 
stayed  the  hand  of  persecution.  The  reign  of  Philip  was  a 
time  of  rest  for  the  church.  These  emperors  lived  away 
from  Rome  and  neglected  Roman  customs. 

7.  By  Decius  (emperor  a.  d.  249-25  i.  Special  years  of 
persecution,  the  same). — When  the  Roman  legions  revolted 
agamst  Philip,  they  compelled  Decius,  who  was  sent  to 
quell  the  revolt,  to  assume  the  purple  and  Philip  was  slain. 
Decius  came  as  a  reformer.  It  seemed  to  him  that  the  best 
way  to  carry  out  his  reforms  was  to  restore  the  old  order  of 
things  and  with  it  the  worship  of  the  heathen  gods.  To 
regain  the  favour  of  the  national  gods  he  deemed  it  neces- 
sary to  extirpate  Christianity  ;  this  attack  was  similar  to 
that  of  Marcus  Aurelius  only  it  was  more  systematically 
carried  out.  Accordingly,  **  In  every  town  throughout  the 
empire  a  day  was  appointed  on  which  sat  a  court  of  inquiry 
composed  of  a  magistrate  and  five  of  the  chief  citizens, 
before  which  all  persons  suspected  of  Christianity  were  to  be 
summoned,  to  be  commanded  to  renounce  their  religion  and 
to  offer  sacrifices.     Imprisonment  and  death  followed  re- 


144       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


fusal."  The  results  of  this  action  were  threefold,  i.  There 
were  great  numbers  of  Christians  who  confessed  their  faith 
and — marvellous  witnesses  for  the  kingdom — went  gladly  to 
their  death.  Cyprian,  writing  of  the  state  of  affairs  in 
Carthage — and  there  are  parallel  accounts  of  other  cities — 
says :  '*  Unasked  they  ran  to  the  forum,  of  their  own 
accord  they  hastened  to  death,  as  if  all  along  they  had  been 
wishing  for  this,  as  if  they  were  embracing  an  opportunity 
which  they  had  always  desired.  How  many  had  then  to  be 
put  off  by  the  magistrates  because  evening  was  coming  on  ! 
How  many  even  begged  that  their  destruction  might  not  be 
delayed  I  "  2.  There  were  those  who  abandoning  their 
property  fled  to  the  deserts — thus  giving  rise  to  the  monastic 
movement.  3.  Since  the  church  had  had  rest  from 
238-249  A.  D.  numbers  of  persons  had  come  into  its  fold  who 
were  not  really  Christians  and  hence  there  were  those  who 
apostatized  and  offered  sacrifice  to  the  heathen  gods.  The 
general  name  of  "  The  Lapsed  "  was  given  to  these.  The 
heads  of  the  churches  in  Rome,  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Alex- 
andria and  other  cities  were  cruelly  tortured  or  killed — and 
often  tortured  before  they  were  killed.  But  Decius  failed 
in  his  efforts  and  Christianity  only  took  a  stronger  hold. 

The  successors  of  Decius  were  Gallus,  a.  d.  251-253,  and 
.^milianus,  a.  d.  253.  After  the  death  of  Decius  there  was 
a  short  jespite  for  the  church,  but  the  persecutions  soon 
began  again. 

8.  By  Valerian  (emperor  a.  d.  253-260.  Special 
years  of  persecution  a.  d.  257-260). — During  the  first  five 
years  of  his  reign  Valerian  showed  great  favour  to  the 
Christians.  There  were  many  of  this  faith  in  his  household. 
But  persuaded  by  Macrianus — described  by  Eusebius  as 
**  master  and  chief  ruler  of  the  Egyptian  magi," — the  em- 
peror issued  a  persecuting  edict.  He  ordered  that  Chris- 
tian congregations  should  be  prevented  from  meeting  and 
that  they  should  be  deprived  of  their  bishops.  One  result 
was  that  the  banished  bishops  turned  missionaries  and  spread 
Christianity  and  that  their  influence  at  home  was  increased. 


The  Church  in  Persecution  14^ 

Soon  another  edict  in  258  a.  d.  was  issued  which  was  very 
drastic  in  its  provisions.  **  It  commanded  that  all  bishops, 
presbyters,  and  deacons  should  be  put  to  death ;  that  all 
senators  and  magistrates  should  lose  their  property  and 
rank,  and  then,  if  they  refused  to  abjure  Christ,  they  should 
be  put  to  death  ;  and  that  members  of  the  imperial  house- 
holti  who  were  or  ever  had  been  Christians  were  to  be  sent 
to  work  in  chains  on  the  imperial  estates."  This  decree  is 
unique  and  remarkable  in  that  definite  statuable  punish- 
ments are  assigned  to  different  classes  of  Christians  and  in 
that  it  so  evidently  passes  over  Christians  in  humble  posi- 
tions. Many  Christians  of  eminent  position  suffered  in  tliis 
persecution — very  few  lapsed — and  the  Christians  in  humble 
life  accompanied  them  to  their  martyrdoms  without  fear. 
Cyprian,  head  of  the  church  of  Carthage,  when  he  pre- 
sented himself  before  the  Roman  tribunal  in  his  city  was 
only  asked  his  name — no  more — he  was  sentenced  to  death 
and  pronounced  "  an  enemy  to  the  Roman  gods  and  the 
sacred  laws."  Cyprian  replied,  *'  God  be  thanked."  The 
place  of  execution  was  a  great  plain  which  was  thronged 
with  the  mourning  members  of  the  church.  After  he  was 
beheaded  his  remains  were  removed  by  his  disciples  in 
mingled  lamentation  and  triumph. 

The  successors  of  Valerian  were  Gallienus,  a.  d.  260-268, 
and  Claudius  II,  a.  d.  268-270.  Gallienus  was  very  fa- 
vourable to  Christianity.  He  published  an  edict — revers- 
ing that  of  his  father  Valerian — ordering  "  that  the  minis- 
ters of  the  Word  should  perform  their  customary  duties  with 
freedom  and  that  no  one  should  molest  them."  *<  He  also 
restored  to  the  Christians  the  cemeteries,  buildings  and 
lands  which  had  been  taken  from  them."  This  edict  was 
not  only  sent  to  the  Roman  but  also  to  the  church  officials. 
This  emperor  is  the  first  one  who  recognized  the  church  as 
having  a  legal  standing. 

9.  By  Aurelian  (emperor  a.  d.  270-275.  Special 
years  of  persecution,  a.  d.  274,  275). — Very  few  Christians 
suffered — for  it  was  a  threatened  rather  than  a  real  persecu* 


146       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 

tion.  In  the  year  of  his  death,  275  a.  d.,  he  prepared  an 
edict  against  the  Christians — having  determined  to  restore 
the  worship  of  the  heathen  gods — but  the  order  was  not  ex- 
ecuted. The  reign  of  this  emperor  records  an  interesting 
fact  that  in  an  ecclesiastical  dispute  which  he  is  called  upon 
to  decide  he  refers  it  to  a  court  of  arbitration  which  *'  the 
Christian  bishops  of  Italy  and  Rome  should  appoint." 
There  is  here  no  "  hint  of  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman 
See." 

The  successors  of  Aurelian  were  Tacitus,  a.  d.  275, 
Probus,  A.  D.  276-282,  Carus,  a.  d.  282,  Carinus,  a.  d.  283, 
Numerian  a.  d.  283. 

10.  By  Diocletian  (emperor  a.  d.  284-305.  Begin- 
ning of  persecution  303  a.  d.). — Diocletian  was  installed 
emperor  at  Nicomedia.  He  associated  with  himself  Max- 
imian  as  colleague  in  the  supreme  dominion.  In  a.  d.  293 
he  associated  with  himself  Constantius  and  Galerius  who 
were  to  take  part  in  the  government  of  the  empire  and  suc- 
ceed himself  and  Maximian  when  they  abdicated. 

From  268-303  A.  D.  or  about  thirty-five  years  the 
churches  had  rest  and  enjoyed  a  period  of  great  prosperity. 
Many  members  rose  to  high  positions  in  the  state  and  many 
large  and  fine  churches  were  built.  Great  numbers  of  con- 
verts were  received  to  membership. 

Nineteen  years  of  his  reign  passed  before  Diocletian  man- 
ifested any  disposition  to  disturb  the  Christians^  ''  Many 
of  the  most  considerable  officers  of  the  palace  were  avowedly 
Christians.  Prisca,  the  wife  of  Diocletian,  and  their  daugh- 
ter Valeria,  the  unhappy  wife  of  Galerius,  if  not  actually 
members  of  the  church  were  favourably  disposed  to  it." 

It  was  in  303  a.  d.  when  Diocletian  was  much  enfeebled 
by  age  and  under  the  influence  of  unscrupulous  advisers 
that  the  assault  was  made  upon  the  church.  His  younger 
colleague  Galerius  advocated  stern  repression.  There  were 
four  edicts. 

The  first  *'  enjoined  the  destruction  of  all  places  of  Chris- 
tian worship  and  the  burning  of  Christian  books.     It  also 


The  Church  in  Persecution  147 


deprived  the  professors  of  Christianity  of  all  honours  and 
dignities,  ordaining  also  that  without  any  distinction  of  rank 
or  degree  they  bhould  be  liable  to  the  torture,  and  every 
suit  of  law  should  be  decided  against  them ;  while  on  the 
other  hand  they  were  debarred  from  being  plaintiffs  in 
questions  of  wrong,  adultery  or  theft ;  and  finally,  that  they 
should  neither  be  capable  of  freedom  nor  have  the  right  to 
suffrage." 

The  second  edict  issued,  a  few  weeks  after  the  first — the 
emperor  seeming  to  fear  a  Christian  rebellion — had  for  "  its 
main  enactment  that  the  pastors  and  officers  of  the  churches 
everywhere  should  be  thrust  into  prison  and  bonds." 
Prisons  were  now  everywhere  filled  with  the  best  in  the 
churcheSo 

The  third  edict  issued  (Dec.  21,  303  A.  d.)  on  the  eve 
of  the  twentieth  anniversary  of  the  emperor's  reign  was  in 
the  nature  of  an  amnesty  in  opening  the  prison  doors,  but 
for  Christians  it  contained  no  hope  for  "  Those  who  had 
been  imprisoned  for  their  faith  might  be  liberated  with  other 
captives  provided  they  would  consent  to  offer  sacrifice  to  the 
gods ;  should  they  refuse  the  offer,  torture  was  to  be  applied." 

The  fourth  edict  was  issued  April  20,  304  a.  d.  "  It  was 
ordered,"  says  Eusebius,  *'that  all  persons  of  every  people 
and  city  should  sacrifice  and  make  libations  to  the  gods." 

The  effects  of  these  successive  edicts  were  appalling. 
Churches  were  everywhere  destroyed.  The  Scriptures  were 
burned.  Men,  women  and  children  were  imprisoned,  tor- 
tured, thrown  to  wild  beasts  and  burned  to  death.  Virgins 
and  matrons  were  subjected  for  their  faith,  to  horrors  worse 
than  death.  "  Maximian  in  Italy  and  Africa  and  Galerius  in 
the  East  made  the  most  of  their  opportunities  in  inflicting 
suffering."  They  both  delighted  in  cruelties  and  gave 
their  desire  full  swmg  in  this  matter. 

But  the  church  stood  steadfast  under  this  last  expiring 
effort  of  Paganism — for  such  it  was — to  recover  its  lost 
ground  and  rehabilitate  itself. 

Diocletian   and  Maximian  abdicated  in  305   a.   d.  and 


148  Studies  in  Early  Church  History- 
were  succeeded  by  Constantius  in  the  west  and  Galerins 
in  the  east.  Constantius  was  now  able  to  show  the  favour  to 
the  Christians  which  he  desired  and  the  churches  of  Africa, 
Italy,  Spain,  Gaul  and  Britian  were  exempted  from  persecu- 
tion. But  Constantius  died  in  306  a.  d.  and  in  the  strife 
which  followed  the  churches  were  at  the  mercies  of  the 
provincial  governors.  Matters  did  not  become  really 
settled  until  312  a.  D.  when  Constantine  succeeded  in 
getting  the  reigns  of  government  for  the  west  in  his  hands. 
There  was  a  reign  of  terror  in  the  east,  for  the  Christians, 
under  Galerius  from  306-311  a.  d.  w^hen  he  died.  To  be  a 
Christian  was  to  be  proscribed  and  multitudes  were  tortured 
and  mutilated  and  put  to  death.  Galerius  died  a  horrible 
death.  '*  In  his  dying  torments  he  published  a  decree  of 
toleration  confessing  himself  baffled  and  entreating  the 
prayers  of  Christians  on  his  behalf." 

THE  EDICT  OF  MILAN 

This  Edict  is  the  Charter  of  Christian  Liberty  and 

records  the  triumph  of  Christianity  in  the  long  battle  of 
three  hundred  years  with  the  power  and  intellect  of  Rome. 
The  two  emperors,  Constantine  for  the  west  and  Licinus  for 
the  east  met  at  Milan  and  this  edict  was  issued  from  that 
city  March,  313  a.  d. 

This  decree  ''  gives  full  toleration  to  the  Christian  faith 
ordering  that  all  places  of  worship  taken  from  the  Christians 
should  be  restored  without  delay  or  charge,  that  any  loss 
they  had  suffered  should  be  made  good  and  that  Christian 
ministers  should  be  released  from  all  burdensome  municipal 
offices." 

Christianity  now  became  the  religion  of  the  empire.  The 
persecutions  which  had  been  so  severe  had  proved  the  power 
of  Christianity  and  that  it  could  overcome  the  world.  The 
able  statesmanship  of  Constantine  perceived  very  clearly  that 
it  was  useless  to  try  to  resuscitate  the  old  heathen  religion. 
He  accepted  Christianity  not  only  for  itself  and  its  benefits, 


The  Church  in  Persecution  149 


but  also  because  it  was  really  the  religion  of  the  empire. 
He  did  not  raise  it  to  that  place  but  accepted  the  fact  of  its 
being  in  that  position.  It  was,  he  saw,  the  only  religion  of 
Divine  certainties. 

In  323  A.  D.  Constantine  became  sole  emperor  of  the 
east  and  the  west.  The  church  now  took  upon  itself  new 
life  and  power  for  the  emperor  of  the  east  had  not  been 
wholly  in  sympathy  with  Constantine  in  making  Christianity 
the  religion  of  the  empire. 

QUESTIONS 

What  was  the  occasion  of  the  persecution  of  the  church  ? 
Why  was  the  clash  inevitable  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the  heroic 
elements  brought  out  ?  What  was  the  creed  ?  What  can  be 
said  of  the  Jewish  persecution?  The  origin?  Extent  and 
time  ?  Conduct  of  the  persecuted  ?  What  were  the  Roman 
persecutions  ?  The  policy  of  the  empire  ?  The  attitude  of 
Christianity  ?  The  joining  of  the  issue  ?  The  penalties  ?  Ex- 
tent and  time  ?  What  were  the  ten  persecutions  ?  By  Nero  ? 
ByDomitian?  By  Trajan?  By  Marcus  Aurelius  ?  By  Septim- 
ius  Severus?  By  Maximinus?  By  Decius  ?  By  Valerian? 
By  Aurelian  ?  By  Diocletian  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  Edict 
of  Milan  and  its  importance  to  the  church. 


Study  X 
THE  CHURCH  IN  VICTORY 

THE  RAPID  GROWTH 

The  Situation  (from  the  resurrection  of  Christ  to 
323  A.  D.). — When  Christianity  first  began  to  be  preached  it 
found  many  difficulties  and  many  enemies  opposing  it.  The 
Jewish  rulers  and,  then,  the  Roman  officials  and  populace 
placed  every  possible  obstacle  in  the  way.  The  priests  of  the 
heathen  religions  supported  by  the  empire  and  the  keenest 
and  deepest  philosophical  thinkers  tried  to  shoulder  it  into 
the  ditch.  It  was  ridiculed  and  lampooned  by  the  ablest 
satirists  of  the  day.  Every  foul  crime  was  charged  upon 
its  followers.  The  believers  in  the  Christ  were  tortured, 
mutilated,  thrown  to  wild  beasts,  until  the  doers  of  these 
things  themselves  grew  weary  in  their  work  and  ceased. 
Yet  in  spite  of  everything  the  church  grew  and  increased 
rapidly  in  numbers  and  in  power. 

The  expansion  of  Christianity  in  the  first  years  of  its  ex- 
istence is  one  of  the  marvels  of  history. 

"  Seventy  years  after  the  founding  of  the  very  first  Gentile 
church  in  Syrian  Antioch,  Pliny  wrote  in  the  strongest  terms 
about  the  spread  of  Christianity  throughout  remote  Bithynia, 
a  spread  which  in  his  view  already  threatened  other  cults 
throughout  the  province.  Seventy  years  later  still  the 
Paschal  controversy  reveals  the  existence  of  a  Christian 
federation  of  churches,  stretching  from  Lyons  to  Edessa, 
with  its  headquarters  situated  at  Rome.  Seventy  years  later 
again,  the  Emperor  Decius — tlie  fierce  persecutor — declared 
he  would  sooner  have  a  rival  emperor  in  Rome  than  a 
Christian  bishop.  And  ere  another  seventy  years  had 
passed,  the  cross  was  sewn  upon  the  Roman  colours."  This 
new  faith  came  out  into  the  open.     It  did  not  wait  to  be 

150 


The  Church  in  Victory  15 1 


searched  for,  but  proclaimed  its  doctrines  and  principles 
publically  in  the  very  citadels  of  the  heathen  religion  and 
philosophy.  As  Professor  Harnack  writes,  in  a  recent  work, 
<'  Christianity  was  a  religion  of  towns  and  cities  ;  the  larger 
the  town  or  city  (even  relatively,  it  is  probable)  was  the 
number  of  the  Christians.  This  lent  it  an  extraordinary 
advantage." 

The  Testimony — only  a  small  portion  of  which  can  be 
given  here — to  the  wonderful  expansion  of  Christianity  is 
ample  and  convincing,  from  friend  and  foe — men  who  lived 
at  or  near  the  times  of  which  they  witness. 

Luke  tells  us  of  the  three  thousand  who  were  converted 
upon  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2  :  41);  among  these  con- 
verts were  ^'Parthians  and  Medes  and  Elamites  and  the 
dwellers  in  Mespotamia,  and  in  Judaea,  and  Cappadocia,  in 
Pontus  and  Asia,  Phrygia  and  Pamphylia  and  in  the  parts 
of  Libya  about  Cyrene,  and  strangers  of  Rome,  Jews  and 
proselytes,  Cretes  and  Arabians  (Acts  2  :  9-1 1) ;  these  men 
carried  the  good  news  of  the  gospel  home  with  them  and  be- 
came witnesses  to  others  of  the  truth.  Luke  further  tells  us 
in  his  narrative  in  the  Acts  that,  within  a  little  over  twenty 
years  after  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  Paul  had  carried  the 
gospel  to  many  cities  of  Asia  Minor  and  of  Europe,  and 
then,  afterwards,  to  Rome  itself,  where  he  already  found  the 
church  well  established. 

Paul  corroborates  much  of  the  testimony  of  Luke  in  his 
epistles  and  writes  his  letters  to  churches  which  were  well 
known  and  flourishing.  In  writing  to  the  Church  in  Rome, 
Paul  sends  greeting  to  certain  persons  in  the  households  of 
Aristobulus  (Romans  16:  10)  and  Narcissus  (Romans 
16  :  11),  who  were  evidently  of  some  position.  "Now  as 
we  know  that  during  the  reign  of  Claudius,  no  one  was  so 
powerful  and  so  intimate  with  the  emperor  as  a  certain 
Narcissus  and  also  that  a  certain  Aristobulus  (an  uncle  of 
Herod  the  Great)  was  living  then  at  the  capital  as  a  confi- 
dential friend  of  Claudius,  it  seems  likely  that  these  were 
the  very  two  persons  whose  households  are  mentioned  here 


152       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 

by  the  apostle."  Again  Paul  in  writing  from  Rome  to  the 
Philippians  says,  **A11  the  saints  salute  you,  chiefly  they 
that  are  of  Caesar's  household"  (Philippians  4:  22). 
This  implies  that  the  Roman  Church  contained  a  special 
group  of  Christians  who  belonged  to  the  household  of 
Caesar,  people  who  either  had  had  some  previous  connection 
with  the  Philippian  church  or  had  recently  formed  a  con- 
nection by  means  of  Epaphroditus,  the  Philippian  envoy. 
Perhaps  they  had  entertained  him.  We  must  bear  in  mind 
that  the  city  of  Philippi  was  almost  entirely  Latin  (Roman) 
and  that  it  would  naturally  have  intimate  relations  with  the 
capital  (Acts  16:  21). 

Tacitus,  the  careful  Roman  historian,  in  writing  of  the 
persecution  of  the  Christians,  under  Nero  in  64  a.  d.,  says 
of  their  number  that  they  were  a  huge  multitude — ''ingens 
multudino."  We  are  prepared  for  some  such  statement 
from  what  Luke  and  Paul  have  said  and  also  from  the  fact 
that  amid  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  the  dwellers  in 
Rome  the  Christians  were  singled  out  for  a  fiery  trial  of 
their  faith.  Had  the  company  of  Roman  Christians  been 
small  or  obscure  they  would  have  attracted  little  or  no 
attention  in  the  heterogeneous  population  of  Rome. 

Pliny,  the  governor  of  Bithynia,  wrote — to  quote  him 
again — in  his  now  celebrated  letter — about  112  a.  d. — to 
the  Emperor  Trajan  of  the  great  number  of  Christians  in 
his  province ;  showing  how  fast  and  far  the  gospel  had 
spread  over  Asia  Minor  from  the  cities  where  Paul  preached. 

Justin  Martyr — writing  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century — says  :  "For  there  is  not  a  single  race  of  human 
beings,  barbarians,  Greeks,  or  whatever  name  you  please 
to  call  them,  nomads  or  vagrants  or  herdsmen  living  in 
tents,  where  prayers  in  the  name  of  Jesus  the  crucified,  are 
not  offered  up." 

Eusebius  (H.  E.,  IV  26)  speaks  of  a  remark  of  Melito 
to  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  (a.  d.  i6j-i8o)  that  many 
Imperial  rescripts  had  been  published  in  different  cities  re- 
gardmg  Christianity,  and  the  fact  of  the  rescript  of  Pius 


The  Church  in  Victory  153 


to  the  Common  Diet  of  Asia,  which  contains  a  nucleus  of 
truth,  says  '*  that  many  governors  in  the  provinces  have 
already  addressed  the  emperor  on  the  subject  of  Chris- 
tianity." 

Irenseus  of  Lyons — writing  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
second  century — says:  "Though  scattered  throughout  the 
whole  world,  the  church  carefully  keeps  this  preaching  and 
faith  which  she  has  received,  as  if  she  dwelt  in  a  single 
house  ...  for  although  the  languages  of  the  world 
are  varied,  yet  the  meaning  of  the  Christian  tradition  is  one 
and  the  same.  There  is  no  whit  of  difference  in  what  is 
believed  or  handed  down  by  the  churches  planted  in  Ger- 
many or  Iberia  or  in  Gaul  or  in  the  East  or  in  Egypt  or  in 
Libya  or  in  the  central  region  of  the  world." 

Clement  of  Alexandria — writing  about  the  close  of  the 
second  century — says  :  "  The  word  of  our  Teacher  did  not 
remain  in  Judaea  alone,  as  did  philosophy  in  Greece,  but 
was  poured  out  over  the  whole  universe,  persuading  Greeks 
and  barbarians  alike  in  the  various  nations  and  villages  and 
cities,  winning  over  whole  households,  and  bringing  to  the 
truth  each  individual  of  those  who  had  believed,  as  well  as 
not  a  few  philosophers." 

Tertullian  of  Carthage — writing  near  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century — says:  ''The  cry  is  that  the  state  is  infested 
with  Christians,  in  the  fields,  in  the  villages,  in  the  lodging- 
houses  !  Both  sexes,  every  age  and  condition  of  life,  rank 
itself,  are  gone  over  to  the  Christian  name.  .  .  .  If  we 
wanted  to  play  the  part  of  avowed  enemies,  not  merely  of 
secret  avengers,  would  we  be  lacking  in  numbers  or  re- 
sources ?  Do  the  Mauri,  Marcomanni,  the  Parthians  them- 
selves, or  any  nation  however  great,  belonging  to  one  coun- 
try and  living  within  its  own  boundaries,  do  these  forsooth, 
outnumber  one  that  is  all  over  the  world  ?  We  are  but  of 
yesterday.  Yet  we  have  filled  all  the  places  you  frequent — 
cities,  lodging-houses,  villages,  townships,  markets,  the  camp 
itself,  tribes,  town  councils,  the  palace,  the  senate  and  the 
forum.     All  we  have  left  you  is  your  temples." 


154       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 

The  pagan  (Porphyry)  in  Macarius  Magnes,  IV  3,  **  Be- 
hold every  corner  of  the  universe  has  experienced  the 
gospel,  and  the  whole  ends  and  bounds  of  the  world  are  oc- 
cupied with  the  gospel." 

Eusebius  (H.  E.  IX  9)  speaks  of  Maximinus  Daza's 
Rescript  to  Sabinus  and  that  the  emperors  "  Diocletian  and 
Maximian  issued  edicts  for  the  suppression  of  Christianity 
when  they  saw  almost  all  men  deserting  the  worship  of  the 
gods  and  attaching  themselves  to  the  Christian  people." 

This  testimony  coming  from  so  many  sources — however 
much  it  may  be  minimized — indicates  that  the  Roman 
Empire  was  in  grip  of  a  mighty  power  which  was  moving 
steadily  and  irresistibly  to  the  accomplishment  of  certain 
ends. 

Some  Effects  were  :  i.  The  changed  lives  of  thou- 
sands of  believers  in  all  parts  of  the  empire.  Men  steeped 
in  the  fearful  immoralities  of  the  times  upon  accepting 
Christ,  were  cleansed  and  began  to  lead  new  and  pure  lives. 
This  miracle  of  the  changed  life,  repeatedly  performed,  be- 
fore the  eyes  of  the  pagans  was  continually  winning  converts 
and  changing  the  moral  and  spiritual  outlook  of  whole 
communities.  A  new  spirit  was  infused  in  men  ;  they  knew 
how  to  suffer,  to  be  deprived  of  property  and  to  endure 
indignities  for  their  faith,  but  they  had  no  harsh  words  for 
those  who  made  them  undergo  such  hardship.  2.  The  un- 
dermining and  cessation  of  the  worship  in  the  heathen  temples 
generally  and  the  refusal  of  people  to  bring  offerings  and 
make  sacrifices  to  the  gods.  3.  The  setting  aside  of  the 
much  vaunted  philosophy  of  the  age  and  the  raising  up  of 
new  standards.  4.  The  persecutions  which  were  bitter  and 
cruel  to  the  last  degree.  If  all  the  Christian  writings  had 
perished  in  the  persecution  of  Diocletian — as  he  intended 
they  should — and  only  the  records  of  the  acts  of  the 
persecutors  had  been  preserved  they  would  have  shown  how 
mighty  this  Christian  movement  was.  For  no  sooner  was 
a  persecution  passed — no  matter  how  severe — than  Chris- 
tianity sprang  up  stronger  than  ever.     The  rapid  expansion 


The  Church  in  Victory  ij;^ 

«of  Christianity  is  shown  by  the  great  and  persistent  efforts 
made  to  crush  it.  5.  Growing  organizations  of  Christians 
in  all  parts  of  the  empire,  which  daily  became  more  power- 
ful. 


SOURCES   OF  POWER 

Whence  did  Christianity  derive  its  power  ?  There  have 
been  many  attempts  to  account  for  the  marvellous  increase 
of  Christianity — outside  the  supernatural — in  the  first  three 
centuries  of  our  era.     The  best  known  of  these  is, 

Gibbon's  Five  Causes  of  the  Growth  of  Christianity : 
'*  I.  The  zeal  which  the  early  Christians  inherited  from  the 
Jews.  2.  The  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and 
of  future  rewards  and  punishments.  3.  The  miraculous 
powers  claimed  by  the  primitive  church.  4.  The  morality 
of  the  early  Christians.  5.  Their  well  ordered  ecclesiastical 
organization."  It  has  been  pointed  out  that,  while  these 
causes  may  explain  to  some  extent  the  increase  of  Chris- 
tianity, they  do  not  explain  themselves  and  that  they  are 
effects  rather  than  causes.  Dr.  Newman,  in  considering 
them,  questions  whether  they  should  be  regarded  as  causes 
at  all.  He  says:  '*  i.  Christians  had  zeal  for  Christianity 
after  they  were  converted,  not  before.  2.  The  doctrines  of 
future  punishment  and  eternal  glory  do  not  affect  men  until 
they  believe  in  them.  However  much  the  rewards  of  a 
future  life  may  be  made  attractive  they  do  not  of  themselves, 
now,  keep  bad  men  from  leading  evil  lives.  Why  should 
they  have  turned  men,  then,  from  their  pleasant  sins  to  a 
mortified  existence,  to  a  life  of  ill-usage,  fright,  contempt 
and  desolation  ?  3.  When  there  were  so  many  false  teachers 
claiming  to  have  miraculous  powers  and  performing  magical 
rites,  the  Christians  made  comparatively  little  of  this  ele- 
ment. 4.  The  morality  of  the  Christians  seems  rather  to 
have  repelled  than  attracted  the  heathen.  5.  The  well  or- 
dered ecclesiastical  organizations  were  decidedly  the  results 
of  the  fervid  inward  spiritual  life  rather  than  the  means  of  it." 


156       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


The  Supernatural  guidance  of  the  church  must  be  con- 
sidered as  the  chief  source  of  its  power. 

The  Christians  had  faith  in  a  Divine  Person.  Jesus  gave 
the  command  to  preach  the  gospel  to  all  the  world,  to  His 
disciples,  and  then  said,  **Lo,  I  am  with  you  alway,  even 
unto  the  end  of  the  world"  (Matthew  28  ;  18-20).  Again 
just  before  His  ascension,  He  commanded  His  disciples  to 
wait  in  Jerusalem  until  they  were  endued  with  power  from 
on  high.  ''  But  ye  shall  receive  power  after  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  come  upon  you  :  and  ye  shall  be  witnesses  unto  Me 
both  in  Jerusalem  and  in  all  Judaea,  and  in  Samaria,  and 
unto  the  uttermost  part  of  the  earth  "  (Acts  i  :  8,  4-8). 

^'  The  triumphant  zeal  of  the  first  Christians  is  intelligible, 
if  we  remember  that  it  was  zeal  for  Christ,  their  Lord  and 
Master."  This  was  the  purport  of  Peter's  speech  when  three 
thousand  persons  were  converted.  Again  Peter  declared, 
*'  Neither  is  there  salvation  in  any  other  :  for  there  is  none 
other  name  under  heaven  given  among  men,  whereby  we 
must  be  saved."  Paul  said  to  the  Corinthian  church,  ''  For 
I  determined  not  to  know  anything  among  you  save  Jesus 
Christ  and  Him  crucified."  It  was  the  asserted  faith  in 
God  the  Father  and  Jesus  Christ,  as  supreme  over  every- 
thing earthly,  that  caused  the  persecutions.  The  Christians 
had  only  to  deny  Christ  to  go  free.  The  test  was  always 
upon  belief  in  Christ. 

Origen — writing  about  250  a.  d. — says  :  *'  In  all  Greece, 
and  in  all  barbarous  races  within  our  world,  there  are  tens 
of  thousands  who  have  left  their  national  laws  and  customary 
gods  for  the  Law  of  Moses  and  the  Word  of  Jesus  Christ ; 
though  to  adhere  to  that  Law  is  to  incur  the  hatred  of 
idolaters,  and  to  have  embraced  that  Word  is  to  incur  the 
risk  of  death  as  well.  And  considering  how,  in  a  few  years, 
and  with  no  great  store  of  teachers,  in  spite  of  the  attacks 
which  have  cost  us  life  and  property,  the  preaching  of  that 
Word  has  found  its  way  into  every  part  of  the  world,  so  that 
Greeks  and  barbarians,  wise  and  unwise,  adhered  to  the  re- 


The  Church  in  Victory  Ij;^ 

ligion  of  Jesus — doubtless  it  is  a  work  greater  than  any  work 
of  man." 

When  the  first  general  council  met  at  Nicea  under  the 
auspices  of  the  first  Christian  emperor,  Constantine,  Eusebius, 
the  great  church  historian  was  present  and  he  tells  us  that 
delegates  were  in  attendance  from  all  over  the  world ; 
Syrians,  Cilicians,  Phoenicians,  Arabians,  Palestinians, 
Egyptians,  Thebans,  Lybians,  Persians,  Scythians  and 
from  Pontus,  Galatia,  Pamphylia,  Thrace,  Macedonia, 
Achaia,  Spain,  Rome,  and  other  regions. 

They  framed  a  creed,  which  is  known  as  the  Nicene 
creed,  as  a  consensus  of  their  belief,  and  we  see  at  once  that 
it  is  the  same  gospel  which  Peter  and  Paul  preached.  The 
creed  reads : 

*' We  believe  in  one  God  the  Father  Almighty,  Creator 
of  all  things  visible  and  invisible ;  and  in  the  one  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  only  begotten  of  the  Father,  that  is 
of  the  substance  of  the  Father,  God  of  God,  Light  of  Lights, 
very  God  of  very  God ;  begotten,  not  made,  of  one  substance 
with  the  Father,  by  whom  all  things  were  made  in  heaven 
and  earth ;  who  for  us  men  and  our  salvation  came  down 
from  heaven,  was  incarnate,  was  made  man,  suffered, 
rose  again  the  third  day,  ascended  into  heaven,  and  He  will 
come  again  to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead.  And  in  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Those  who  say  there  was  a  time  when  He 
was  not,  and  He  was  not  before  He  was  begotten,  and  He 
was  made  of  nothing  and  the  Son  of  God  is  created,  that  He 
is  mutable  or  subject  to  change,  the  Catholic  church  anathe- 
matizes." The  men  who  formulated  their  belief  in  this 
manner  had  passed  through  the  fearful  persecutions  of  the 
Emperor  Diocletian,  and  Galerius  and  many  of  them  bore 
the  marks  of  torture  upon  their  persons — they  knew  for 
whom  they  had  suffered,  even  Jesus  Christ  their  Divine 
Lord. 

Given  this  belief  in  a  Divine  Person  and  faith  in  the 
morality,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  future  judgment, 


ijS       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


which  He  taught,  follow  as  natural  consequences.  And 
what  was  more  natural  than  that  those  who  believed  these 
things  should  gather  together  in  well  ordered  ecclesiastical  or- 
ganizations.    Christ  was  the  life-giving  source  of  power. 

The  Human  Instrumentality. — Jesus  Christ  worked 
through  men  He  said  to  His  disciples,  "  Ye  shall  be  wit- 
nesses unto  Me."  Christian  teachers,  writers  and  preach- 
ers called  not  only  upon  their  Lord,  but  used  also  their 
natural  powers  to  set  forth  the  gospel.  They  employed 
every  form  of  argument  to  induce  others  to  believe  as  they 
believed.  When  they  were  tortured,  mutilated  and  con- 
demned to  death  they  expected  no  supernatural  interference 
to  save  them  from  torture  or  death.  Their  Lord  had  tasted 
the  cup  of  suffering  and  they  tasted  it  with  Him.  They 
were  conscious  of  being  the  people  of  God  and  living  with 
Him  a  life  which  no  outward  evil  circumstances  could  effect; 
this  gave  them  great  power , 

THE  CLASSES  REACHED 

What  classes  of  people  were  reached  by  Christianity? 
This  is  an  interesting  question  and  fortunately  there  is  much 
material  upon  which  to  base  an  answer. 

The  Common  People. — This  class  constitutes,  by  far, 
always  the  large  majority.  Christianity  at  once  appealed  to 
it  and  found  in  its  appeal  a  ready  response.  If  the  gospel 
had  been  unable  to  touch  the  hearts  of  the  common  people 
there  would  have  been  little  hope  of  its  surviving  for  any 
length  of  time.  Listead  of  a  reproach  it  is  the  glory  of 
Christ  that  the  multitude  thronged  Him  when  on  earth  and 
gathered  around  His  standard  after  His  ascension.  He 
came  to  heal  the  broken  hearted,  to  give  courage  to  the  dis- 
couraged and  to  lift  up  the  fallen. 

The  Cultured,  the  Wealthy,  the  Aristocratic,  the 
Official  and  the  Court  Classes. — The  mission  of  Chris- 
tianity was  to  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  people.  It  min- 
istered not  only  to  the  low  but  to  the  high  ni  the  social 


The  Church  in  Victory  159 


:scale.  It  was  a  brotherhood  not  of  poverty  or  wealth,  but 
of  the  heart  through  faith  in  Christ.  Professor  Harnack,  in 
a  recent  work,  has  taken  much  pains  to  give  instance  after 
instance  of  the  conquest  of  Christ  over  the  hearts  of  those  in 
high  station  in  the  world.  '*  Even  Paul  indicates  that  some 
people  who  were  wise  and  mighty  and  of  good  birth  had 
become  Christians.  And  this  is  borne  out  by  the  Book  of 
Acts.  The  proconsul  Sergius  Paulus  (Acts  13  :  7-12)  was 
brought  over  to  the  faith  in  Cyprus,  Dionysius,  the  Areopa- 
gite  in  Athens  (17  :  34)  and  not  a  few  women  of  good  posi- 
tion in  Thessalonica  (17:4).  So  with  Beroea  (17  :  12)." 
In  Rome  Pomponia  Grsecina,  a  distinguished  lady,  and 
T.  Flavins  Clemens — uncle  of  the  Emperor  Domitian — and 
his  wife  Flavia  Domatilla  were  converts.  It  is  related  by 
Dio  Cassius  that  many  others  followed  in  this  way.  Very 
early  Christianity  attracted  to  itself  men  of  great  ability  as 
expounders  and  defenders  of  the  faith ;  these  writers  have 
already  been  quoted — in  this  book — and  their  works — or 
what  remains  of  them — have  been  gathered  under  the  title 
of  '^  The  Writings  of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers. "  A  number 
of  these  men  were  converted  philosophers  and  men  of  high 
standing  in  the  literary  world.  For  a  religious  and  philo- 
sophical writer  of  the  highest  grade  Paul  himself  stands  un- 
equalled. The  catacombs  of  Rome — see  Study  V — were 
dug  in  grounds  belonging  to  many  of  the  noble  families  of 
the  imperial  city,  and  in  some  cases  constructed  and  adorned 
by  their  special  order,  and  under  their  care.  Christianity 
was  making  such  headway  amongst  the  wealthy  and  cul- 
tured classes  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Valerian  that  his 
second  rescript  against  the  Christians  takes  notice  of  none 
but  the  upper  classes  and  members  of  Caesar's  household, 
outside  the  clergy.  *'  Senators  and  prominent  men  and 
Roman  knights  are  to  lose  their  position,  and  moreover  to 
be  stripjDed  of  their  property ;  if  they  still  persist  in  being 
Christians  after  their  goods  have  been  taken  away  from 
them,  they  are  to  be  beheaded."  In  the  first  part  of  the 
reign  of  Diocletian — before  he  became  a  persecutor  and 


l6o       Studies  in  Early  Church  History 


when  he  and  his  colleagues  favoured  Christianity — Euse- 
bius  tells  us :  "  The  emperor  even  trusted  our  members 
with  provinces  to  govern  and  discharged  them  from  the 
duty  of  offering  sacrifice."  We  know  also  that  Diocletian's 
wife  and  daughter  were  in  all  probability  followers  of  the 
Christ.  Soldiers  play  an  important  part  in  the  chronicle  of 
martyrdoms.  There  are  numbers  of  instances  of  centurions 
and  officers  of  high  position  who  on  being  accused  of  being 
Christians  acknowledged  that  they  were  and  stripping  the 
insignia  of  their  rank  from  their  bodies  went  bravely  to  their 
death  as  soldiers  of  Jesus  Christ. 

A  number  of  the  severest  persecutions  grew  out  of  the  fact 
that  Christianity  was  pressing  its  way  so  rapidly  into  the 
upper  ranks  of  culture,  position  and  wealth. 

THE  WORLD  CHURCH 

Conditions. — In  the  Roman  empire  was  realized  the 
world  state  as  it  had  never  been  actualized  before.  This 
was  accomplished  by  the  destruction  of  nationalities  by 
Roman  conquest.  This  state  of  things  was  accompanied 
also  by  a  dissolution  of  the  creeds  of  the  nations,  which  had 
been  conquered  by  Rome,  Hitherto  each  nation  had  had 
its  gods  whose  worship  had  tended  actually  to  keep  it  from 
uniting  with  other  nations.  The  idea  of  a  universal  religion 
was  foreign  to  the  thought  of  the  separate  nationalities. 
One  result  was  that,  in  the  breaking  up  of  the  national 
creeds,  a  period  of  skepticism  set  in  and  Rome  attempted — 
in  her  efforts  for  a  universal  religion — to  make  an  eclectic 
one  with  the  worship  of  the  Roman  emperor  as  the  one  form 
of  worship  coextensive  with  the  empire.  But  this  state  of 
affairs  was  unnatural  and  unsatisfying.  Meantime  the  law 
of  the  world  state — which  Rome  had  become — spread  over 
the  world.  **  All  freemen  throughout  the  empire  were  made 
Roman  citizens.  Tribal  and  national  ideas  about  the 
power  of  fathers  over  sons,  husbands  over  wives,  and 
masters  over  slaves,  gave  place  to  prmciples  of  natural  right 


The  Church  in  Victory  i5j 


and  universal  justice.     Roman  law,  like  the  Mosaic  Law, 
became  a  pedagogue  to  lead  men  to  Christ." 

Principles. — Christianity  was  the  first  to  set  up  the  claim 
to  be  "  The  World  Religion  "  and  the  Roman  empire  had 
prepared  for  and  was  ready  for  this  claim — even  though  it 
was  resisted.  In  this  religion  men  as  men,  irrespective  of 
race,  nation  or  condition  are  accepted.  Bond  and  free, 
rich  and  poor,  high  and  low,  barbarian  and  civilized,  are 
commanded  and  entreated  to  seek  pardon  and  reconciliation 
through  Jesus  Christ.  He  is  the  One  who  is  perfectly  able 
to  satisfy  all  the  demands  of  the  true  religion  and  become 
the  centre  from  which  all  its  forces  operate. 

There  are  five  principles:  i.  The  fatherhood  of  God. 
2.  The  Saviourhood  of  Christ.  3.  The  brotherhood  of 
man.     4,   The  law  of  service.     5.  The  law  of  love. 

Christianity  has  an  incomparable  sublimity  of  doctrine — 
above  all  other  forms  of  religion  and  ''  an  inexhaustible 
adaptability  to  different  ages,  nationalities,  classes  and  in- 
dividuals ...  by  countless  experiments.  Century 
after  century  it  has  proved  its  congruity  with  the  aspirations 
not  of  any  sect  or  nation  or  age,  but  of  the  spiritual  nature  of 
man.  Under  the  most  varied  conditions  of  prosperity  and 
misery,  of  peace  and  war,  of  wealth  and  poverty,  of  civili- 
zation and  barbarism,  of  culture  and  ignorance,  of  race, 
period,  climate,  government,  age  and  sex,  it  has  been  recog- 
nized as  furnishing  the  supreme  type  of  moral  excellence 
and  the  best  satisfaction  of  man's  spiritual  needs." 

Perfection  of  all  religions.  Christianity  shows  its  su- 
periority in  that : 

1.  God  does  not  stand  apart  from  the  world,  neither  is 
He  identified  with  it ;  He  is  in  the  world  and  over  it  and 
not  far  from  any  one  of  us.  In  His  character  God  "  unites 
with  infinite  power  and  wisdom  the  moral  attributes  of 
holiness  and  love." 

2.  "  Man  is  declared  to  be  made  in  the  image  of  God 
and  qualified  therefore  for  conscious  intercourse  and  fellow- 
ship with  God." 


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3.  Sin  is  shown  to  arise  not  from  physical  evil,  but  from 
the  conscious  disobedience  of  a  righteous  command  of  God, 
and  to  remain  in  the  world  through  continued  willful  diso- 
bedience of  the  wise  laws  of  a  good  God. 

4.  Pardon  and  reconciliation  for  man  are  affected  in  and 
through  Christ  in  a  way  in  which  God  is  not  compromised, 
but  His  holiness  and  justice  are  shown.  Life  becomes  a 
training  school  for  a  higher  abode. 

5.  The  heaven  for  which  we  are  bidden  to  strive  is  not 
a  haven  of  forgetfulness  or  a  realm  of  sensual  pleasure,  but 
an  abode  of  the  pure  and  righteous. 

Christianity  is  the  only  universal  and  everlasting  religion. 
"  For  on  all  human  things  and  what  was  eternal  and  what 
was  transient  alike,  it  had  set  the  sign  of  the  cross." 

QUESTIONS 

"What  can  be  said  of  the  rapid  growth  of  Christianity  ?  The 
situation  ?  The  testimony  to  the  expansion  ?  Some  effects  ? 
What  were  the  sources  of  power  ?  Gibbon's  five  causes  ?  The 
supernatural  guidance  ?  The  human  instrumentality  ?  What 
were  the  classes  reached  ?  The  common  people  ?  The  cul- 
tured, the  wealthy,  etc.  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the  World 
Church  ?  Conditions  in  the  empire  ?  Principles  of  the  church  ? 
Perfection  ? 


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